Antimicrobial agents and their use in therapy

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides an agent, or a composition containing an agent, for use in treating or preventing a bacterial infection in a subject, wherein said agent comprises:
         (i) an oligopeptidic compound comprising a PCNA interacting motif and a domain that facilitates the cellular uptake of said compound,
 
wherein the PCNA interacting motif is X 1 X 2 X 3 X 4 X 5  (SEQ ID NO: 1) and
 
wherein:
   X 1  is a basic amino acid;   X 2  is an aromatic amino acid;   X 3  is an uncharged amino acid other than an aromatic amino acid, Glycine (G) and Proline (P);   X 4  is any amino acid other than Proline (P), an acidic amino acid or an aromatic amino acid; and   X 5  is a basic amino acid or Proline (P); or   (ii) a nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence encoding the oligopeptidic compound of (i).       

     In certain aspects the agent and compositions of the invention may be used as single agents. In other aspects of the invention agents and compositions of the invention may be used in conjunction with one or more additional active agents, such as antibiotics.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a National Phase application filed under 35 USC 371 of PCT International Application No. PCT/EP2014/073967 with an International Filing Date of Nov. 6, 2014, which claims under 35 USC 119(a) the benefit of United Kingdom Application No. 1319621.7, filed Nov. 6, 2013, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein.

The present invention relates to novel agents, particularly peptides or mimetics thereof and their encoding nucleic acids, pharmaceutical compositions comprising at least one of said agents, and their use as anti-microbials, e.g. in the treatment or prevention of microbial infections, particularly bacterial infections. The agents may be useful alone or in combination with other compounds, such as cytotoxic and/or cytostatic compounds, particularly intracellularly-acting cytotoxic and/or cytostatic compounds, including e.g. anti-microbials such as antibiotics, anti-fungals etc. Also provided are therapeutic methods which comprise the use of said agents and compositions for the aforementioned uses. The agents may also be used in the manufacture or preparation of medicaments for the aforementioned therapies. Furthermore, the agents may be used in in vitro methods, e.g. in cell culture methods (to prevent or inhibit microbial growth or to prevent or reduce unwanted microbial colonisation or contamination in a non-medical (e.g. in vitro or ex vivo) setting, for example for sterilisation or antiseptic purposes) and in the production of products coated with the agent (e.g. medical devices, implants etc). Thus, products coated with the agent are also provided.

APIM peptides are a group of peptides that interact with PCNA (proliferating cell nuclear antigen) via a novel PCNA interacting motif (Gilljam et al., 2009. Identification of a novel, widespread, and functionally important PCNA-binding motif, J. Cell Biol. 186(5), pp. 645-654). The motif has been termed APIM (AlkB homologue 2 (hABH2) PCNA-interacting motif) since it was first identified as mediating the interaction between hABH2 and PCNA, but as will be clear from the disclosure below, APIM motifs have now been identified in a wide range of proteins. The, PCNA binding motif found in APIM peptides typically is defined using the consensus sequence, [R/K]-[F/W/Y]-[L/I/V/A]-[L/I/V/A]-[K/R] (SEQ ID NO: 19).

PCNA is a member of the sliding clamp family of proteins, which is known to be involved in both DNA replication and DNA repair. The main function of PCNA is to provide replicative polymerases with the high processivity needed for duplication of the genome. In live S-phase cells, PCNA tagged with green fluorescent protein (GFP) forms distinct foci representing sites of replication. It can therefore be used as an S-phase marker.

Numerous proteins involved in cellular processes such as DNA repair, chromatin assembly, epigenetic and chromatin remodelling, sister-chromatid cohesion, cell cycle control and survival are localised in so-called replication factories which contain more than a dozen replication forks. Many of these proteins interact with PCNA and have been shown to co-localise with PCNA in replication foci.

Thus, various proteins interact with PCNA and it is thought that many of these interactions are mediated via a conserved PCNA interacting peptide sequence called the PIP-box (QxxL/I/MxxF/DF/Y [SEQ ID NO: 1205]), wherein x can be any amino acid. However, peptides that contain a PIP-box typically are extremely cytotoxic to human and animal cells and therefore unsuitable for use in therapy.

However, APIM peptides have been shown to be useful in therapy. Specifically APIM peptides have been shown to be effective in sensitizing cells to cytotoxic and cytostatic agents, particularly DNA-damaging agents (WO 2009/104001) and indeed as an apoptosis-inducing cytotoxic agent in its own right (Müller et al., 2013. Targeting Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen and Its Protein Interactions Induces Apoptosis in Multiple Myeloma Cells, PLOS One, 8(7), e70430, pp. 1-12). Thus, APIM peptides have been shown to be useful in combination with cytotoxic and/or cytostatic agents in the treatment of a disorder or condition where it is desirable to inhibit the growth of cells, or in a treatment which involves cytostatic therapy, i.e. to prevent or inhibit the unwanted proliferation of cells.

In work leading up to the present invention, the inventors have surprisingly determined that APIM peptides have a direct effect on microorganisms, i.e. APIM peptides have direct cytotoxic effects on a variety of microbial cells and also potentiate the effect of cytotoxic and/or cytostatic agents on microbial cells, i.e. sensitize microbial cells to various cytotoxic and/or cytostatic agents, particularly agents that act intracellularly, e.g. DNA-damaging agents, rather than agents that function at the cell membrane or cell wall, e.g. to permeabilize cells. Whilst not wishing to be bound by any specific theory, it is hypothesized that APIM peptides may interact with sliding clamp DNA proteins in microorganisms, thereby effecting DNA replication and repair in microbial cells, resulting in cytotoxicity and/or reduction in cell growth. In this respect, it is thought that microbial cells may contain proteins that contain APIM motifs that are involved in modulating various protein interactions that are critical for the numerous cell processes. Thus, the oligopeptidic compounds disclosed herein may be able to interfere with the interaction of said proteins with their target binding partner(s) thereby inhibiting essential cellular functions, particularly DNA synthesis and repair, resulting in the stimulation of apoptosis or apoptosis-like cell death, or increased sensitivity of the microbial cells to other cytotoxic and/or cytostatic agents.

Infectious diseases, also known as transmissible diseases or communicable diseases, comprise clinically evident illness, i.e. symptoms of disease, resulting from the infection, presence and growth of pathogenic biological agents, e.g. microbial organisms such as bacteria and fungi, in an individual host organism. In certain cases, infectious diseases may be asymptomatic for much or even all of their course in a given host. In the latter case, the disease may only be defined as a “disease” (which by definition means an illness) in hosts who secondarily become ill after contact with an asymptomatic carrier.

Microbial infections do not always result in, or progress to, a clinically overt or symptomatic disease or disease state. For instance, a wound may become infected by one or more microbes, without resulting in an infectious disease. Furthermore, microbial growth in and on a subject may occur naturally, e.g. commensal growth, such as gastrointestinal microbial flora. Thus, a microbial infection may be viewed as any atypical, unwanted, undesirable, excessive and/or harmful infection and does not necessarily involve or result in a disease.

Transmission of a microbial pathogen can occur in various ways including physical contact, contaminated food, body fluids, objects, airborne inhalation, or through vector organisms. Infectious diseases are sometimes called “contagious” when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions. Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted.

Although only a relatively small proportion of microorganisms cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals, infectious diseases are one of the main contributors to global mortality and morbidity and a huge amount of effort has gone into the discovery and development of antimicrobial compounds, for both the treatment and prevention of infectious diseases.

However, ever since antimicrobials, particularly antibiotics, were first used it was found that microbes, e.g. bacteria, could display intrinsic resistance to these drugs or could develop resistance to these drugs. Resistance of a microbe, e.g. bacterium or fungus, to an antibiotic or antimycotic can be viewed as a substantially greater tolerance, or reduced susceptibility, to the antibiotic or antimycotic compared to a sensitive microbe or a typical or a wild type version of the microbe. In some cases a microbe can be completely unaffected by exposure to an antibiotic or antimycotic. In this instance the microbe can be considered fully resistant to that antibiotic or antimycotic.

Multidrug resistance (MDR) in bacteria describes the situation where a bacterium is resistant to at least three classes of drugs, specifically in the context of bacteria, at least three classes of anti-microbial (or more specifically anti-bacterial) agents. Antibiotics in one class are functionally unrelated, structurally unrelated, or both, to antibiotics in a different class. MDR in bacteria is thus often termed multiple anti-bacterial drug resistance or multiple antibiotic resistance. The terms are used interchangeably in the art and herein. Bacteria displaying multidrug resistance phenotypes (or multiple antibacterial/antibiotic drug resistance phenotypes) are referred to as MDR bacteria (or sometimes MAR bacteria). Again, these terms are used interchangeably in the art and herein.

Antimicrobial, e.g. antibiotic/antimycotic, resistance mechanisms are numerous. For instance, resistance may arise from cell impermeability, which physically prevents the antimicrobial from reaching its site of action in or on the cell; efflux mechanisms which prevent effective amounts of the antimicrobial reaching its site of action in or on the microbe by rapidly removing the antimicrobial from the cell; metabolic mechanisms which breakdown the antimicrobial or convert the antimicrobial into a harmless (or less harmful) compound, or a compound more easily excreted; bypass mechanisms in which the microbe uses alternative pathways to those inhibited by the antimicrobial; or through the microbe having a form of the antimicrobial target (e.g. enzyme) that is less sensitive to the antimicrobial or not having the target at all.

Development (or acquisition) of resistance can be through mutation. For instance, this may involve changes in the structure of the target of the antimicrobial that reduces the sensitivity of the target to the antimicrobial. It can also be a mutation in a pathway involved in the regulation of the cellular machinery involved in the metabolism or efflux of the antimicrobial. It can also be a mutation in the constituents of the outer layers (e.g. the membranes/walls) of the microbe that effects the permeability of the antimicrobial into the microbe. In some instances multiple mutations must accumulate in order for a microbe to become resistant to a particular antimicrobial or class thereof.

Recent studies have indicated that the process of translesion synthesis (TLS) in bacteria contributes to the acquisition of antibiotic resistance, e.g. in MDR strains. TLS is a cellular mechanism to tolerate DNA damage in which specific DNA polymerases (TLS polymerases) are expressed that are capable of by-passing and leaving the DNA lesions in DNA for the possibility of removal later, thereby enabling the cell to complete the duplication of its genome. However, this damage tolerance mechanism is error-prone because TLS polymerases are commonly low-fidelity enzymes and insert bases in a non-Watson Crick manner opposite the lesion and opposite undamaged DNA, and thus their inaccurate synthesis introduces mutations. It is thought that these mutations contribute to genetic diversity in bacteria and facilitate the acquisition of antibiotic resistance, particularly in MDR strains.

Many MDR species and strains of microbe exist today. For instance, bacterial genera from which MDR species and strains pose significant problems for human and animal health include, but are not limited to Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Burkholderia, Klebsiella, Providencia, Enterococcus and Staphylococcus.

Accordingly, there remains a need for effective therapies suitable for the treatment of microbial infections, particularly diseases, disorders or conditions caused by, or associated with, microbial infections (e.g. infectious diseases caused by, associated with, or exacerbated by, a microbial infection, e.g. a bacterial or fungal infection), which also have minimal side effects.

As mentioned above, the inventors have surprisingly found that APIM peptides have a direct effect on microorganisms, i.e. APIM peptides have direct cytotoxic effects on a variety of microbial cells and also potentiate the effect of cytotoxic and/or cytostatic agents on microbial cells. As discussed in more detail in the Examples, the inventors have unexpectedly determined that oligopeptidic compounds comprising a PCNA interacting motif (APIM motif) and an uptake peptide can be imported into microbial cells (exemplified with yeast and both gram negative and gram positive bacteria), wherein the compounds have a cytotoxic and/or cytostatic effect, i.e. an anti-microbial effect, e.g. bactericidal (antibiotic) or fungicidal (antimycotic) effects. Thus, the oligopeptidic compounds described herein may find utility as anti-microbial agents alone and/or may enhance the effect of other cytotoxic and/or cytostatic agents, e.g. anti-bacterial or anti-fungal agents. Thus, for instance, the introduction of the agents described herein, e.g. intravenously, may be useful in the treatment of septicaemia (an infection of the blood) or oral administration may be useful in the treatment of, e.g. gastric ulcers caused by a bacterial infection, such as Helicobacter pylori (a gram negative bacterium), or other infected wounds etc. Thus, it may be expected that the agents defined herein may be effective in the treatment of a number of microbial infections including various infectious diseases, e.g. bacterial and/or fungal infections, or conditions caused or exacerbated by, or associated with, an infectious disease.

These surprising findings have led the inventors to propose new therapeutic uses for APIM peptides, i.e. peptides comprising a PCNA binding motif, namely for use in treating an infectious disease or infection or a disease or condition exacerbated or caused by an infection, e.g. by acting directly on the infecting microbes and/or acting indirectly by potentiating the effects of other anti-microbial compounds, particularly cytotoxic or cytostatic agents, e.g. DNA damaging agents. Furthermore, the inventors have also demonstrated that APIM peptides may also potentiate the effects of DNA damaging radiation, particularly UV radiation.

As mentioned above, it is thought that the peptides of the invention act by interfering with DNA replication and repair mechanisms. This is different to mechanism of action for many known anti-microbials, which commonly act by inhibiting cell wall synthesis, e.g. beta-lactams (such as penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, monobactams), polymyxins, or by inhibiting protein synthesis, e.g. microlides, aminoglycosides, tetracyclines etc. Whilst not wishing to be bound by theory it is hypothesised that APIM peptides may function by inferring with protein interactions between the sliding clamp (e.g. the β-clamp in bacteria, such as E. coli) and DNA polymerases and other proteins involved in DNA repair, including TLS polymerases. This is particularly surprising in view of the differences between the conserved motif that mediates the interactions between the β-clamp and polymerases in bacteria, QL[S/D]LF, and the APIM sequence. Thus, the antimicrobial agents of the present invention may be particularly useful in combating diseases or conditions caused by MDR microbes, e.g. MDR bacteria, because the agents act on a different part of the cellular machinery to which resistance mechanisms have not yet evolved. Moreover, the antimicrobial agents of the present invention may interfere with the mechanisms associated with the acquisition of MDR.

The inventors have also determined that the peptides of the invention are particularly effective at combating biofilms. In general terms a biofilm is a collection, or community, of microorganisms surrounded by a matrix of extracellular polymers (also known in the art as a glycocalyx). These extracellular polymers are typically polysaccharides, notably polysaccharides produced by the organisms themselves, but they can contain other biopolymers as well. A biofilm will typically be attached to a surface, which may be inert or living, but it has also been observed that biofilms may form from microorganisms attached to each other or at any interface. Generally, therefore, a biofilm is characterised as a highly organised multicellular community of microorganisms encased in, or surrounded by, an extracellular polymer matrix, generally a polysaccharide matrix, and typically in close association with a surface or interface. Such a mode of growth is protective to the microorganisms and renders them difficult to remove or eradicate (for example, as discussed further below, recalcitrant or resistant to anti-microbial agents or host defence or clearance mechanisms).

Biofilms cause significant commercial, industrial and medical problems, in terms of infections, contamination, fouling and spoilage etc, and thus the present invention provides a significant advantage in enabling or facilitating the combating of such biofilms, including both reducing or preventing their formation, and rendering them more susceptible to removal or reduction, e.g. more susceptible to the effect of anti-microbial agents (including disinfectants or antibiotics) or indeed in the case of an infection, to the immune response of the infected host. The efficacy of anti-microbial agents, both therapeutic and non-therapeutic and including particularly antibiotics, may thus be enhanced.

Biofilms are found ubiquitously on a wide variety of surfaces or interfaces (e.g. water/solid and water/gas (for example water/air) interfaces) if conditions conducive to microbial colonisation exist. Basically a biofilm will form wherever there are microorganisms and an interface or surface, particularly a surface exposed to water or moisture and biofilms are now recognised as the natural state of microbial growth on such surfaces or interfaces.

The microorganisms in a biofilm community display properties at the cellular level (phenotype) that are not shared by their planktonic (free-floating) equivalents. In fact, it is believed that microorganisms in a biofilm are profoundly different from planktonic free-floating cells. Further differences can also be observed at the community level and are attributed to the effects of the extracellular matrix. Perhaps most notable is the commonly observed phenomenon that microorganisms in a biofilm environment do not display the same susceptibilities to anti-microbial agents, e.g. antibiotics, anti-fungals and microbicides, and host immune defences or clearance mechanisms.

It is now becoming evident and increasingly documented that biofilms may form in the case of microbial infections i.e. within or on an infected host. Thus biofilm formation may also occur on a “physiological” or “biological” surface, that is on an animate or biotic surface, or a surface on or in an infected host organism (e.g. a human or non-human animal subject), for example on an internal or external body or tissue surface. Such biofilm formation (or infection) on body tissues is increasingly believed to contribute to various infective diseases, including for example native valve endocarditis (mitral, aortic, tricupsid, pulmonic heart valves), acute otitis media (middle ear), chronic bacterial prostatitis (prostate), cystic fibrosis (lungs), pneumonia (respiratory tract), periodontitis (tissues supporting the teeth, e.g. gingiva, periodontal ligament, alvelor bone).

Biofilm niches are also present when medical devices are implanted and the formation of biofilm on such implanted (“in-dwelling”) devices can lead to clinical problems with infection at such sites, such as prosthetic valve endocarditis and device-related infection, for example with intrauterine devices, contact lenses, prostheses (e.g. prosthetic joints) and at catheterisation sites, for example with central venous or urinary catheters.

A significant problem and risk with such biofilm infections is that microorganisms (or more particularly microcolonies) may break off or detach from the biofilm, and enter other tissues, including significantly the circulation. Such circulating biofilm-derived microorganisms can cause further infections and lead to significant clinical problems, particularly as the detached circulating microorganisms may have all the resistance characteristics of the parent community.

Body or tissue surfaces which are dead or damaged (e.g. necrotic or inflamed) are particularly susceptible to biofilm infection. Wounds are susceptible to infection and biofilm formation can occur in wounds that do not heal in a short amount of time. Wounds are an ideal environment for the formation of biofilms due to their susceptibility to bacterial colonisation and the availability of substrate and surface for biofilm attachment. Problematically, infection of a wound often delays healing further and thus renders that wound more susceptible to biofilm formation and established infection. Wounds in which healing is delayed (so called chronic wounds) represent sites of particular concern with respect to biofilm formation. However, evidence is increasingly growing that both chronic and acute wounds may be sites of biofilm infection, with evidence of diverse microbial communities or populations in wounds, particularly chronic wounds, including anaerobic bacteria within chronic wounds.

Biofilm based infection is very difficult to treat and biofilm contamination is very difficult to eradicate. Given the widespread occurrence of biofilms and the medical, environmental, industrial or other commercial problems they cause, any means of improving or enabling the combating of biofilms would be very important, both clinically and commercially. A need therefore exists for new methods of combating biofilms, both in clinical and industrial or commercial situations.

As noted above, it has been found that the peptides of the invention are effective as anti-biofilm agents, e.g. capable of inhibiting or preventing the formation of biofilms. Accordingly, the present invention may be seen also to provide new methods and means for combating biofilm, in vitro (e.g. on a product, material, device or implant), in vivo (e.g. at a wound site, including a surgical wound, a implant site etc.) or ex vivo.

Thus, at is broadest, the invention can be seen to provide a method of treating or preventing a microbial infection, more particularly a microbial infectious disease or a disease or condition exacerbated or caused by a microbial infection, particularly a bacterial or fungal infectious disease or infection, said method comprising administering (particularly administering an effective amount of) an agent comprising or encoding a peptide comprising an APIM motif or a composition (e.g. a pharmaceutical composition) containing an agent comprising or encoding a peptide comprising an APIM motif to a subject in need thereof.

Thus, the invention provides an agent comprising or encoding a peptide comprising an APIM motif or a composition (e.g. a pharmaceutical composition) containing an agent comprising or encoding a peptide comprising an APIM motif, for use in treating or preventing a microbial infection, more particularly a microbial infectious disease or a disease or condition exacerbated or caused by a microbial infection, particularly a bacterial or fungal infectious disease or infection.

In another aspect, there is provided the use of an agent comprising or encoding a peptide comprising an APIM motif in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment or prevention of a microbial infection, more particularly a microbial infectious disease or a disease or condition exacerbated or caused by a microbial infection, particularly a bacterial or fungal infectious disease or infection.

More particularly, the invention provides a method of treating or preventing a microbial infection, more particularly a microbial infectious disease or a disease or condition exacerbated or caused by a microbial infection, particularly a bacterial or fungal infectious disease or infection, said method comprising administering (particularly administering an effective amount of) an agent or a composition (e.g. a pharmaceutical composition) containing an agent to a subject in need thereof, wherein said agent comprises:

(i) an oligopeptidic compound comprising a PCNA interacting motif and a domain that facilitates the cellular uptake of said compound,

wherein the PCNA interacting motif is X₁X₂X₃X₄X₅ (SEQ ID NO: 1) and

wherein:

-   -   X₁ is a basic amino acid;     -   X₂ is an aromatic amino acid;     -   X₃ is an uncharged amino acid other than an aromatic amino acid,         Glycine (G) and Proline (P);     -   X₄ is any amino acid other than Proline (P), an acidic amino         acid or an aromatic amino acid;     -   X₅ is a basic amino acid or Proline (P); or

(ii) a nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence encoding the oligopeptidic compound of (i).

In another aspect, there is provided an agent or a composition (e.g. a pharmaceutical composition) containing an agent for use in treating or preventing a microbial infection, more particularly a microbial infectious disease or a disease or condition exacerbated or caused by a microbial infection, particularly a bacterial or fungal infectious disease or infection, wherein said agent comprises:

(i) an oligopeptidic compound comprising a PCNA interacting motif and a domain that facilitates the cellular uptake of said compound,

wherein the PCNA interacting motif is X₁X₂X₃X₄X₅ (SEQ ID NO: 1) and

wherein:

-   -   X₁ is a basic amino acid;     -   X₂ is an aromatic amino acid;     -   X₃ is an uncharged amino acid other than an aromatic amino acid,         Glycine (G) and Proline (P);     -   X₄ is any amino acid other than Proline (P), an acidic amino         acid or an aromatic amino acid;     -   X₅ is a basic amino acid or Proline (P); or

(ii) a nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence encoding the oligopeptidic compound of (i).

In an further aspect, there is provided the use of an agent in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment or prevention of a microbial infection, more particularly a microbial infectious disease or a disease or condition exacerbated or caused by a microbial infection, particularly a bacterial or fungal infectious disease or infection, wherein said agent comprises:

(i) an oligopeptidic compound comprising a PCNA interacting motif and a domain that facilitates the cellular uptake of said compound,

wherein the PCNA interacting motif is X₁X₂X₃X₄X₅ (SEQ ID NO: 1) and

wherein:

-   -   X₁ is a basic amino acid;     -   X₂ is an aromatic amino acid;     -   X₃ is an uncharged amino acid other than an aromatic amino acid,         Glycine (G) and Proline (P);     -   X₄ is any amino acid other than Proline (P), an acidic amino         acid or an aromatic amino acid;     -   X₅ is a basic amino acid or Proline (P); or

(ii) a nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence encoding the oligopeptidic compound of (i).

In particular embodiments the invention provides a method of treating or preventing a bacterial infection, said method comprising administering an agent, or a composition containing an agent, to a subject in need thereof, wherein said agent comprises:

(i) an oligopeptidic compound comprising a PCNA interacting motif and a domain that facilitates the cellular uptake of said compound,

wherein the PCNA interacting motif is X₁X₂X₃X₄X₅ (SEQ ID NO: 1) and

wherein:

-   -   X₁ is a basic amino acid;     -   X₂ is an aromatic amino acid;     -   X₃ is an uncharged amino acid other than an aromatic amino acid,         Glycine (G) and Proline (P);     -   X₄ is any amino acid other than Proline (P), an acidic amino         acid or an aromatic amino acid; and     -   X₅ is a basic amino acid or Proline (P); or

(ii) a nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence encoding the oligopeptidic compound of (i).

In a further embodiment, the invention provides an agent, or a composition containing an agent, for use in treating or preventing a bacterial infection in a subject, wherein said agent comprises:

(i) an oligopeptidic compound comprising a PCNA interacting motif and a domain that facilitates the cellular uptake of said compound,

wherein the PCNA interacting motif is X₁X₂X₃X₄X₅ (SEQ ID NO: 1) and

wherein:

-   -   X₁ is a basic amino acid;     -   X₂ is an aromatic amino acid;     -   X₃ is an uncharged amino acid other than an aromatic amino acid,         Glycine (G) and Proline (P);     -   X₄ is any amino acid other than Proline (P), an acidic amino         acid or an aromatic amino acid; and     -   X₅ is a basic amino acid or Proline (P); or

(ii) a nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence encoding the oligopeptidic compound of (i).

In still further embodiments, the invention provides the use of an agent in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment or prevention of a bacterial infection in a subject, wherein said agent comprises:

(i) an oligopeptidic compound comprising a PCNA interacting motif and a domain that facilitates the cellular uptake of said compound,

wherein the PCNA interacting motif is X₁X₂X₃X₄X₅ (SEQ ID NO: 1) and

wherein:

-   -   X₁ is a basic amino acid;     -   X₂ is an aromatic amino acid;     -   X₃ is an uncharged amino acid other than an aromatic amino acid,         Glycine (G) and Proline (P);     -   X₄ is any amino acid other than Proline (P), an acidic amino         acid or an aromatic amino acid; and     -   X₅ is a basic amino acid or Proline (P); or

(ii) a nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence encoding the oligopeptidic compound of (i).

As noted above, in some embodiments the agent may be used in combination with one or more additional active agents, e.g. a cytostatic or cytotoxic agent, in order to enhance the effect of that additional active agent, or to sensitise cells to the effect of said additional active agent, e.g. cytostatic or cytotoxic agent. However, in some embodiments, the agent as defined herein may be used alone, i.e. as the only active agent capable of preventing or inhibiting microbial growth (e.g. having anti-microbial activity) in a composition and/or medicament.

Accordingly, in yet another aspect, there is provided a method of treating or preventing a microbial infection, more particularly a microbial infectious disease or a disease or condition exacerbated or caused by a microbial infection, particularly a bacterial or fungal infectious disease or infection, said method comprising administering an agent or composition as defined herein, and separately, simultaneously or sequentially administering of one or more additional active agents, e.g. a cytostatic or cytotoxic agent, to a subject in need thereof.

Alternatively viewed, there is provided an agent or composition as defined herein for use in combination with one or more additional active agents, e.g. a cytostatic or cytotoxic agent, in the treatment or prevention of a microbial infection, more particularly a microbial infectious disease or a disease or condition exacerbated or caused by a microbial infection, particularly a bacterial or fungal infectious disease or infection.

Thus, there is provided the use of an agent as defined herein in the manufacture of a medicament for use in combination with one or more additional active agents, e.g. a cytostatic or cytotoxic agent, in the treatment or prevention of a microbial infection, more particularly a microbial infectious disease or a disease or condition exacerbated or caused by a microbial infection, particularly a bacterial or fungal infectious disease or infection.

In a particular embodiment, the invention provides a method of treating or preventing a bacterial infection, said method comprising administering an agent or composition as defined herein, and separately, simultaneously or sequentially administering of one or more additional active agents, e.g. a cytostatic or cytotoxic agent, to a subject in need thereof.

Alternatively viewed, there is provided an agent or composition as defined herein for use in combination with one or more additional active agents, e.g. an antibiotic, in the treatment or prevention of a bacterial infection.

Thus, there is provided the use of an agent as defined herein in the manufacture of a medicament for use in combination with one or more additional active agents, e.g. an antibiotic, in the treatment or prevention of a bacterial infection.

Thus, in one embodiment the medicament may further comprise one or more additional active agents, such as a cytostatic or cytotoxic agent, e.g. an antibiotic.

The medicament may be in the form of a single composition comprising both the agent as defined herein and the one or more additional active agents, e.g. cytostatic or cytotoxic agent, or it may be in the form of a kit or product containing them for separate (e.g. simultaneous or sequential) administration.

There is thus also provided the use of an agent as defined herein in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment or prevention of a microbial infection, more particularly a microbial infectious disease or a disease or condition exacerbated or caused by a microbial infection, particularly a bacterial or fungal infectious disease or infection, wherein the medicament is administered separately, simultaneously or sequentially with one or more additional active agents, e.g. a cytostatic or cytotoxic agent.

In another aspect, the invention provides a product containing an agent as defined herein together with one or more additional active agents, e.g. a cytostatic or cytotoxic agent, as a combined preparation for separate, simultaneous or sequential use in the treatment or prevention of a microbial infection, more particularly a microbial infectious disease or a disease or condition exacerbated or caused by a microbial infection, particularly a bacterial or fungal infectious disease or infection.

In still further embodiments, there is provided the use of an agent as defined herein in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment or prevention of a bacterial infection, wherein the medicament is administered separately, simultaneously or sequentially with one or more additional active agents, e.g. an antibiotic.

In another aspect, the invention provides a product containing an agent as defined herein together with one or more additional active agents, e.g. an antibiotic, as a combined preparation for separate, simultaneous or sequential use in the treatment or prevention of a bacterial infection.

The agent as defined herein may be used to modulate or potentiate the effect of one or more additional active agents, e.g. a cytostatic or cytotoxic agent. For instance, the agent may sensitize the microbial cell to the one or more additional active agents, e.g. a cytostatic or cytotoxic agent. Alternatively viewed, the one or more additional active agents, such as a cytostatic or cytotoxic agent, may enhance, augment or improve the anti-microbial effect of the agent defined herein. Thus, the agents defined herein may have the advantage of enabling lower doses of anti-microbial agents to be effective and/or improving the efficacy of anti-microbials against resistant strains.

In some embodiments the agent may be used in combination with DNA damaging radiation, e.g. UV radiation, in order to enhance the effect of the radiation, or to sensitize cells to the effect of said radiation, e.g. UV radiation.

UV radiotherapy (also known as UV radiation therapy or UV light therapy), may be used in the treatment of various microbial infections, particularly bacterial infections. By “UV radiotherapy” is meant the use of UV radiation, preferably UVC radiation, i.e. radiation with a wavelength of 200 nm to 290 nm.

Unfortunately UV radiotherapy is often unsuccessful at completely eradicating microbial cells from a patient because it is often not possible to deliver a sufficiently high dose of local radiation to kill microbial cells without an unacceptably high risk of damage to the surrounding normal tissue at the site of infection. It is also known that microbial cells show widely varying susceptibilities to radiation-induced cell death and ionizing radiation may only inhibit further cell growth, rather than eradicating the microbial cells as such. Thus, there is a need to enhance the efficacy of radiotherapy by sensitizing cells to the effects of ionizing UV radiation.

Accordingly, the agents and compositions of the invention may be used to provide such a sensitizing effect, in other words to enhance (or alternatively put to increase, augment, or potentiate) the effects of UV radiotherapy, particularly UVC radiotherapy, or to render microbial cells, e.g. bacterial cells, which may be present in an infection site in a subject, more susceptible to the effects of said radiotherapy. Thus, they may find utility in any antimicrobial application where radiotherapy is used. This may include any situation where it is desired to kill, inhibit or eradicate bacterial cells, e.g. at an infection site or in vitro.

The agents and compositions of the invention may thus be used as a sensitizer of microbial cells, e.g. bacterial cells, to the effects of UV radiation. By “sensitizer” is meant the use of the agents and compositions of the invention to enhance the effect of UV radiation on microbial, e.g. bacterial, cells. This may be achieved by the inhibition of the endogenous cellular DNA repair mechanisms, e.g. the TLS pathway.

Thus, the present invention encompasses an agent, or a composition containing an agent, for use as a sensitizer for UV radiotherapy in the treatment or prevention of a microbial, e.g. bacterial, infection in a subject, or in the treatment or prevention of a microbial, e.g. bacterial, infection in subject which involves UV radiotherapy (e.g. UVC radiotherapy), wherein said agent comprises:

(i) an oligopeptidic compound comprising a PCNA interacting motif and a domain that facilitates the cellular uptake of said compound,

wherein the PCNA interacting motif is X₁X₂X₃X₄X₅ (SEQ ID NO: 1) and

wherein:

-   -   X₁ is a basic amino acid;     -   X₂ is an aromatic amino acid;     -   X₃ is an uncharged amino acid other than an aromatic amino acid,         Glycine (G) and Proline (P);     -   X₄ is any amino acid other than Proline (P), an acidic amino         acid or an aromatic amino acid; and     -   X₅ is a basic amino acid or Proline (P); or

(ii) a nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence encoding the oligopeptidic compound of (i).

In further embodiments, the methods of treatment defined above may comprise UV radiotherapy (e.g. UVC radiotherapy), which may be administered simultaneously, sequentially or separately to said agent or composition.

It will be evident that therapies involving the administration of UV radiation (UV radiotherapy) may be particularly useful for the treatment of topical infections, e.g. infections of the skin or mucosal membranes, such as the oral cavity, oesophagus and/or eye. Thus, in some embodiments, the agent or composition for use as a sensitizer for UV radiation, or for use in methods comprising UV radiotherapy, may be formulated for topical administration, e.g. to the skin and/or muscosal membrane. However, the invention is not limited to this aspect, as the agents and compositions of the invention may be combined with UV radiation to treat infections by other means, e.g. endoscopically or ex vivo. For instance, a blood infection may be treated by administering the agent or composition of the invention to a subject and subsequently or contemporaneously irradiating the blood of said subject by circulating the blood through an external tube exposed to UV radiation, i.e. akin to a dialysis machine.

The agents and compositions as defined herein thus have a therapeutic utility in any condition or clinical situation where it is desirable (or where it may be of benefit) to prevent or inhibit the growth of microbial cells, e.g. bacterial and/or fungal cells.

A microbial infection includes any microbial infectious disease or a disease or condition exacerbated or caused by a microbial infection. However, as noted above, microbial infections do not always result in, or progress to, a disease or disease state. Thus, in some embodiments, a microbial infection may be viewed specifically as a microbial infection that is not associated with a disease or condition. Hence, the above therapeutic uses and methods may be viewed as the treatment or prevention of an atypical, unwanted, undesirable, excessive and/or harmful microbial infection and/or a microbial infectious disease or a disease or condition exacerbated or caused by a microbial infection.

Thus, in yet another embodiment, the agent or composition as defined herein may be used as an anti-microbial, e.g. anti-bacterial or anti-fungal agent in in vitro or ex vivo methods, e.g. in methods of cell culture or where the agent is used in the context of an abiotic or inanimate setting, e.g. to treat an inanimate surface to prevent, inhibit or reduce microbial colonisation and/or growth, e.g. for decontamination, antiseptic or sterilisation purposes, or is applied to or contacted with a surface, material, substrate, product, device or system susceptible to microbial growth, e.g. contamination, such as in the preparation of a medical device or implant.

Thus, the invention also provides an in vitro or ex vivo method of administering an agent or composition as defined herein to a microbial cell or cell culture, i.e. to inhibit or prevent the growth of one or more microbes, e.g. bacteria or fungi. This may allow the identification and/or characterisation of agents as defined, e.g. to determine the dose at which the agent is effective or determine which microbes are particularly susceptible. Furthermore, the in vitro methods may be useful to identify other anti-microbial compounds, e.g. compounds that are weakly anti-microbial when used on their own, but which have useful anti-microbial activity when used in combination with the agent of the invention. Alternatively viewed, the invention provides the use of an agent or composition as defined herein in in vitro or ex vivo methods, e.g. microbial cell culture or in the context of an abiotic or inanimate setting, e.g. to treat an inanimate surface (or product or material etc, e.g. as listed above) to prevent, inhibit or reduce microbial colonisation and/or growth, e.g. for decontamination, antiseptic or sterilisation purposes, or for application or administration to a surface or system (etc, as above) susceptible to microbial growth, e.g. contamination.

Thus, in a particular embodiment, the invention provides an in vitro method of:

(i) preventing, inhibiting or reducing bacterial colonisation and/or growth in or on a surface, product or material; or

(ii) preventing, inhibiting or reducing unwanted or undesirable bacterial colonisation and/or growth of a bacterial cell,

comprising administering an agent or composition as defined herein to a surface, product or material susceptible to microbial growth or a microbial cell or a cell culture, optionally simultaneously, sequentially or separately administering one or more additional active agents to said surface, product or material, cell or cell culture.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises a step of exposing said surface, product or material to UV radiation, prior to, contemporaneously with, or after administering said agent or composition.

As noted above, the agent or composition as defined herein is used to prevent a microbial infection or contamination, e.g. in circumstances where there is an increased probability of an infection, such as in surgery or in the treatment of a wound. Thus, in some embodiments the agent or composition as defined herein may be provided or administered via a product, device, implant or material to which the agent or composition has been applied, impregnated or chemically bonded. In this respect, the oligopeptidic compounds defined herein are commonly positively charged and such compounds will readily adhere to various surfaces without the need for additional adhesives. However, the use of adhesives or other methods of bonding the agents of the invention to products, devices, implants or materials is contemplated herein.

Hence, a further aspect of the invention comprises the provision of a product, material, device or implant which is coated, impregnated or chemically bonded with an agent or composition as described herein. The invention also extends to the use of such products, materials, devices or implants in the methods and uses as described herein.

Thus, yet another aspect of the invention comprises a method of producing product, material, device or implant (e.g. an aseptic product, material, device or implant) which is coated, impregnated or chemically bonded with an agent or composition as defined herein, comprising providing a product, material, device or implant and coating or impregnating said device with said agent or composition, or chemically bonding said agent or composition to said product, material, device or implant. Alternatively viewed, the invention may be seen to provide the use of an agent or composition as defined herein in the production of a product, material, device or implant, particularly in the production of an aseptic product, material, device or implant.

As discussed above, the agents and compositions of the invention may also be used to combat biofilms, including both on biotic and abiotic surfaces. Thus, the methods and uses discussed above may be for use in combating biofilm infection or to combat biofilm formation on inanimate surfaces e.g. for disinfection and cleaning purposes. Alternatively viewed, the bacterial infection or bacterial colonisation and/or growth may be a biofilm.

Thus, in some embodiments, the invention may provide a method of preventing or inhibiting the formation of a bacterial biofilm on a product, material, device or implant, said method comprising:

(i) providing a product, material, device or implant; and

(ii) coating or impregnating said device with said agent or composition, or chemically bonding said agent or composition to said product, material, device or implant.

Thus, an oligopeptidic compound (e.g. a peptide) capable of interacting with PCNA may contain or comprise a peptide motif (or sequence) that may be defined generally as:

X₁X₂X₃X₄X₅ (SEQ ID NO: 1), wherein:

-   -   X₁ is a basic amino acid;     -   X₂ is an aromatic amino acid;     -   X₃ is an uncharged amino acid other than an aromatic amino acid,         Glycine (G) and Proline (P);     -   X₄ is any amino acid other than Proline (P), an acidic amino         acid or an aromatic amino acid;     -   X₅ is a basic amino acid or Proline (P).

In order that the oligopeptidic compound, which is capable of interacting with PCNA, or its encoding nucleic acid, may function in the methods and uses of the invention, the compound must be capable of entering the cell, i.e. crossing the cell membrane and cell wall, if present, into the cytosol (cytoplasm), and optionally into one or more other cellular locations, e.g. the nucleus. Whilst this may be achieved using any convenient mechanism, such as with a liposome, as noted above, the inventors have surprisingly and advantageously found that uptake of the oligopeptidic compound may be achieved by associating the oligopeptidic compound with one or more molecules that are known to be capable of facilitating the uptake of molecules into animal cells, e.g. an import peptide.

Thus, the inventors have determined that is it particularly advantageous to generate an oligopeptidic compound that comprises a domain that assists the transit of the compound across the cell membrane, i.e. to generate a fusion peptide or chimeric peptide (a peptide formed from two or more domains that are not normally found together in nature). For instance, a peptide comprising a cell membrane permeable motif, e.g. a cell penetrating peptide (an uptake or import peptide, or a peptide transduction domain). In some embodiments (e.g. wherein the oligopeptidic compound is for use as an antimycotic), the fusion peptide (an oligopeptidic compound) may optionally comprise further sequences to facilitate the targeting of the peptide (i.e. to direct the peptide) to a particular sub-cellular location, e.g. a target peptide, signal peptide or transit peptide. Whilst not wishing to be bound by theory, it is thought that it is the specific combination of a domain capable of interacting with PCNA and a domain that facilitates the uptake of the oligopeptidic compound, that results in the antimicrobial properties of the oligopeptidic compounds disclosed herein.

As the oligopeptidic compound comprises a PCNA interacting motif and a domain that facilitates its uptake, it will be evident that the compound comprises at least 5 residues and the final size of the compound will be dependent on the size and number of the domains that make up said compound, i.e. the PCNA interacting motif and uptake (import) peptide may be viewed as domains of the oligopeptidic compound. Thus, a domain may be viewed as a distinct portion (i.e. a sequence within the full-length peptidic sequence) of the oligopeptidic compound that can be assigned or ascribed a particular function or property.

In some embodiments, the oligopeptidic compound for use in the methods and uses of the invention comprises at least 2 domains, i.e. the PCNA interacting motif domain and the domain that facilitates the cellular uptake of said compound, e.g. uptake (import) peptide sequence domain. However, the oligopeptidic compound may comprise additional domains that may facilitate its function and/or stability, e.g. the capacity of the peptide to interact with its target, i.e. PCNA or an equivalent protein, such as the β-clamp protein from bacteria, e.g. E. coli. Thus, the oligopeptidic compound may comprise at least 2, 3, 4 or 5 domains, e.g. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15 or more domains. For example, in some embodiments the oligopeptidic compound may comprise one or more linker domains, i.e. a domain that interspaces between two other domains, i.e. occupies the space in between and connects two domains of the oligopeptidic compound. In further embodiments, the oligopeptidic compound may comprise a domain that directs the oligopeptidic compound to a cellular or subcellular location, e.g. a signal peptide (also known as a target or transit peptide), such as a nuclear localization signal (NLS) sequence. In still further embodiments, the one or more linker domains may have an additional function, i.e. a linker domain may also function as a signal peptide, e.g. a NLS. Alternatively put, a signal peptide domain may function as a linker domain in some embodiments.

In an exemplary embodiment, the oligopeptidic compound may comprise a PCNA interacting motif domain, a domain that facilitates its cellular uptake (e.g. an uptake (import) peptide sequence domain) and a linker domain. In a further exemplary embodiment, the oligopeptidic compound may also comprise a nuclear localisation signal sequence domain. In still another embodiment the nuclear localization signal sequence domain may function as a linker domain.

Thus, it will be seen that in such embodiments the agent of the invention may take the form of a construct containing (i.e. comprising) an oligopeptidic compound which comprises a PCNA interacting motif as defined herein, together with a domain that facilitates its cellular uptake (e.g. an uptake peptide sequence) and optionally additional domains. In this aspect the invention may accordingly be seen to provide a construct comprising an oligopeptidic compound which is capable of interacting with PCNA.

As noted above the PCNA motif of the invention has been determined to mediate the interaction of an oligopeptidic compound (e.g. peptide) or protein containing such a motif with PCNA. However, the inventors have unexpectedly determined that the oligopeptidic compounds may also interact with PCNA equivalent proteins, e.g. proteins that are functionally equivalent and/or structurally similar to PCNA, such as the β-clamp protein from bacteria, e.g. E. coli. Thus, it is thought that the oligopeptidic compounds may interact with proteins in microbial cells that are functionally equivalent to PCNA, but structurally distinct. In some instances, the oligopeptidic compounds may interact with proteins in microbial cells that are structurally similar to PCNA, but functionally distinct. However, whilst the oligopeptidic compound of the invention may not function using the same mechanism in each type of cell, i.e. eukaryotic and prokaryotic, the compounds of the invention may be characterised insofar as they must be capable of interacting with PCNA, i.e. the oligopeptidic compounds for use in the methods and uses of the invention must be competent and/or proficient PCNA interacting molecules. The PCNA protein used to determine the capacity and/or affinity of the oligopeptidic compound:PCNA interaction may be from any suitable source, e.g. a PCNA from any animal, particularly a mammal such as a human, rodent (e.g. mouse, rat) or any other non-human animal. In preferred embodiments, the oligopeptidic compound:PCNA interaction is determined, characterised or assessed using human PCNA protein.

The interaction may be direct or indirect, and may involve direct binding of the motif to the PCNA protein, or the motif may bind indirectly, for example binding may be mediated by another molecule. This reference to “PCNA-interacting” or “PCNA-binding” can thus include any form of interaction, and both direct and indirect binding.

Any reference herein to a “motif” should be understood to mean X₁X₂X₃X₄X₅ as defined herein.

X₁ is preferably selected from lysine (K), arginine (R), histidine (H), ornithine (Orn), methyllysine (MeK), diaminobutyric acid (Dbu), citrulline (Cit), acetyllysine (AcK), and any suitable basic amino acid selected from the non-conventional amino acids in Table 2. Whilst the standard or conventional basic amino acids are preferred, e.g. K, R and H, particularly K and R, these may be substituted by any functionally equivalent non-conventional basic amino acid.

X₂ is preferably selected from phenylalanine (F), tryptophan (W), tyrosine (Y), tert.-butylglycine, cyclohexylalanine, tert.-butylphenylalanine, biphenylalanine and tri tert.-butyltryptophan (in certain embodiments this list may exclude F). Whilst the standard or conventional aromatic amino acids are preferred, e.g. F, W and Y, these may be substituted by any functionally equivalent non-conventional aromatic amino acid, e.g. from Table 2. In some embodiments, X₂ may be selected from W and Y, F and Y, or F and W or in specific embodiments X₂ may be F or W or Y, or a functionally equivalent non-conventional aromatic amino acid.

The binding of the motif to PCNA may in certain embodiments be improved when X₂ is W or Y. Thus, in one embodiment, X₂ is not F. However, as indicated above, in other embodiments it may be F.

X₃ is preferably a hydrophobic or polar amino acid, particularly an aliphatic amino acid or polar amino acid. Thus, in some embodiments, X₃ may be selected from leucine (L), isoleucine (I), valine (V), alanine (A) methionine (M), norleucine (Nor), serine (S), threonine (T), glutamine (Q), aspargine (N) or cysteine (C) or any suitable hydrophobic or polar amino acid selected from the non-conventional amino acids in Table 2. More particularly, X₃ may be selected from L, I, V, A, M, Nor, S or T and any suitable hydrophobic (preferably aliphatic) or polar (preferably a polar amino acid that does not contain an amine group (NH₂) in the R-group) amino acid selected from the non-conventional amino acids in Table 2. Preferably, X₃ is not N or Q or a non-conventional functional equivalent thereof and/or in certain embodiments X₃ is not M, S and/or T or a non-conventional functional equivalent thereof. X₃ may not be glycine (G) or proline (P) and this limitation is also intended to exclude non-conventional functional equivalents thereof.

Thus, in some embodiments, X₃ may be selected from L, I, A, V, M, S and T, and preferably from L, I, A, V, S and T and optionally non-conventional functional equivalents thereof.

In some embodiments, X₃ may be a hydrophobic, and more preferably an aliphatic amino acid. Thus, in some embodiments, X₃ may be selected from L, I, A, V, M, and preferably from L, I, V and A and optionally non-conventional functional equivalents thereof.

X₄ is preferably a hydrophobic, polar, basic or thiol-containing amino acid. Thus, in some embodiments X₄ an aliphatic amino acid or a polar amino acid. In some preferred embodiments, the polar amino acid does not contain an amine group (NH₂) in the R-group. Thus, X₄ preferably may be selected from L, I, V, A, M, Nor, S, T, Q, N, H, K, R, G or C and any suitable hydrophobic (preferably aliphatic) or polar (preferably a polar amino acid that does not contain an amine group (NH₂) in the R-group), basic or thiol-containing amino acid selected from the non-conventional amino acids in Table 2. Thus, in some embodiments, the basic amino acid may be selected from the amino acids as defined in X₁. In certain embodiments X₄ is not C or a non-conventional functional equivalent thereof and/or N or Q or a non-conventional functional equivalent thereof. In certain embodiments X₄ is not H and preferably X₄ is not R, K or H or a non-conventional functional equivalent thereof. In still further embodiments X₄ is not S or T or a non-conventional functional equivalent thereof. X₄ may not be P, an aromatic amino acid (as defined in X₂) or acidic amino acid, e.g. aspartic acid (D) or glutamic acid (E), and this limitation is also intended to exclude non-conventional functional equivalents thereof.

Thus, in some embodiments, X₄ may be selected from L, V, I, A, M, S, T and G, and preferably from L, V, A, I, S and T and optionally non-conventional functional equivalents thereof.

In other embodiments, X₄ may be a hydrophobic amino acid, and more preferably an aliphatic amino acid or G. Thus, in some embodiments, X₄ may be selected from L, I, A, V, M, and G and preferably from L, V, I and A and optionally non-conventional functional equivalents thereof.

X₅ is preferably selected from K, R, H, Orn, MeK, Dbu, Cit, AcK, P and any functionally equivalent amino acid selected from the non-conventional amino acids in Table 2. Whilst the standard or conventional amino acids are preferred, e.g. K, R, H and P, particularly K, R and H, e.g. K and R, these may be substituted by any functionally equivalent non-conventional basic amino acid.

Thus, in some embodiments X₅ is a basic amino acid, preferably selected from K, R and H and optionally non-conventional functional equivalents thereof.

Thus, in some embodiments X₃ and/or X₄ is a polar amino acid. Accordingly, in certain embodiments only one of X₃ and X₄ is a polar amino acid.

In some embodiments X₄ and/or X₅ is a basic amino acid. Accordingly, in certain embodiments X₅ is a basic amino acid.

A functionally equivalent amino acid may be defined as an amino acid that may be used as a substitute in a peptide or protein for a conventional amino acid without affecting significantly the function of the peptide or protein (or an amino acid that would not be expected to affect or alter significantly the function of the peptide or protein), e.g. an amino acid that has similar structural and/or chemical properties to the conventional amino acid. Thus, a functionally equivalent amino acid may be viewed as having the base structure of a standard amino acid, with a non-standard or non-conventional R-group that is structurally and/or chemically similar to the standard R-group. Preferably, the R-group is structurally similar to the standard R-group of the amino acid being substituted.

A conventional or standard amino acid is an amino acid that is used in vivo to produce a polypeptide or protein molecule, i.e. a proteinogenic amino acid. In other words, an amino acid with a standard or conventional R-group or an amino acid which possesses a side chain that is coded for by the standard genetic code, i.e. “coded amino acids”.

Thus, the invention may provide an oligopeptidic compound comprising the motif [R/K/H]-[W/F/Y]-[L/I/V/A/M/S/T/N/Q/C]-[L/I/V/A/M/G/S/T/N/Q/R/H/K/C]-[K/R/H/P] (SEQ ID NO: 2), wherein said oligopeptidic compound is capable of interacting with PCNA.

In another embodiment the motif may be defined as:

(SEQ ID NO: 3) [R/K/H]-[W/F/Y]-[L/I/V/A/M/S/T/N/Q]- [L/I/V/A/M/G/S/T/N/Q/R/H/K]-[K/R/H/P]

In another embodiment the motif may be defined as:

(SEQ ID NO: 4) [R/K/H]-[W/F/Y]-[L/I/V/A/M/S/T]- [L/I/V/A/M/G/S/T/N/Q/R/H/K]-[K/R/H/P]

In another embodiment the motif may be defined as:

(SEQ ID NO: 5) [R/K/H]-[W/F/Y]-[L/I/V/A/M/S/T]- [L/I/V/A/M/G/S/T/N/Q/R/H/K]-[K/R/H].

In another embodiment the motif may be defined as:

(SEQ ID NO: 6) [R/K/H]-[W/F/Y]-[L/I/V/A/M/S/T]- [L/I/V/A/M/G/S/T/R/K]-[K/R/H].

In another embodiment the motif may be defined as:

(SEQ ID NO: 7) [R/K/H]-[W/F/Y]-[L/I/V/A/M/S/T]- [L/I/V/A/M/G/S/T]-[K/R/H].

In another embodiment the motif may be defined as:

(SEQ ID NO: 8) [R/K]-[W/F/Y]-[L/I/V/A/M/S/T]- [L/I/V/A/M/G/S/T]-[K/R].

In another embodiment the motif may be defined as:

(SEQ ID NO: 9) [R/K]-[W/F]-[L/I/V/A/M/S/T]- [L/I/V/A/M/G/S/T]-[K/R].

In another embodiment the motif may be defined as:

(SEQ ID NO: 10) [R/K]-[W/F]-[L/I/V/A/M/T]- [L/I/V/A/M/G/S/T]-[K/R].

In another embodiment the motif may be defined as:

(SEQ ID NO: 11) [R/K]-[W/F]-[L/I/V/A/M/T]-[L/I/V/A/M/S/T]-[K/R].

In another embodiment the motif may be defined as:

(SEQ ID NO: 12) [R/K]-[W/F]-[L/I/V/A/M/S/T]-[L/I/V/A/M/G]-[K/R].

In another embodiment the motif may be defined as:

(SEQ ID NO: 13) [R/K]-[W/F]-[L/I/A/V/M/T]-[L/I/V/A/M/S/T]-[K/R].

In another embodiment the motif may be defined as:

(SEQ ID NO: 14) [R/K]-[W/F]-[L/I/V/A/M/S/T]-[L/V/A/I/S/T]-[K/R].

In another embodiment the motif may be defined as:

(SEQ ID NO: 15) [R/K]-[W/F]-[L/V/I/A/T]-[L/V/A/I/S/T]-[K/R].

In another embodiment the motif may be defined as:

(SEQ ID NO: 16) [R]-[W/F/Y]-[L/V/I/A]-[L/V/A/S/T/M]-[K/R].

In another embodiment the motif may be defined as:

(SEQ ID NO: 17) [R]-[W/F/Y]-[L/V/I/A/T]-[L/V/A/S/T/M]-[K].

In another embodiment the motif may be defined as:

(SEQ ID NO: 18) [R/K]-[F/Y]-[L/V/I/A]-[L/V/A/I/M]-[K/R].

In another embodiment the motif may be defined as:

(SEQ ID NO: 19) [R/K]-[F/W/Y]-[L/I/V/A]-[L/I/V/A]-[K/R].

In yet another embodiment the motif may be defined as:

(SEQ ID NO: 20) [R/K]-[W/Y]-[L/V/I/A/S/T]-[L/V/A/S/T/M]-[K/R].

In yet another embodiment the motif may be defined as:

(SEQ ID NO: 21) [K]-[F/Y/W]-[L/V/I/A/T]-[L/V/A/I/S/T/M]-[K].

In some embodiments X₁ and X₂ are RW, RF, KF, KW, RY or KY.

In some embodiments X₃ and X₄ are LL, LA, LV, AL, VL, VI, LI, IL, VV, VA, IV, II, AV, IA, AI, AM, LM, LS, LT, IS, MV, TV, AA, IM, LN, LQ, VM, TL, SL, IT, VT, LG, MA, ML, NL, QL, QI, TI, SI, AS, VS, SV, CA, IG, LR, VR, TK or IR. In some embodiments X₃ and X₄ are LL, LA, LV, AL, VL, VI, LI, IL, VV, VA, IV, II, AV, IA, AI, AM, LM, LS, LT, IS, MV, TV, AA, IM, LN, LQ or VM. In some embodiments X₃ and X₄ are LV, IV, SV, LS, AV, LG, LA, IR, LR, VR, AR, IK, LK, VK or AK. In particularly preferred embodiments X₃ and X₄ are LL, LA, LV, AL, VL, VI, LI, IL, VV, VA, IV, II, AV, IA, AI, AM, LM, LS or LT, preferably LL, LA, LV, AL, VL, VI, LI, IL, VV, VA, IV, II, AV, IA or AI. Thus, in certain embodiments X₃ and X₄ are not any one or more of AG, AC, CC, NN, QQ, NQ, QN, TS, SS, ST or TT. In yet further embodiments X₃ and X₄ are SL, LS, SV, LT or AV.

In some embodiments X₂ and X₃ are not FS or FT. In some embodiments X₂ and X₃ are FS or FT.

In some embodiments X₅ is K. In some embodiments X₅ is P.

Thus, in a preferred embodiment, the oligopeptidic compound has or comprises the sequence RWLVK (SEQ ID NO: 28). In other preferred embodiments, the oligopeptidic compound has or comprises a sequence selected from any one or more of:

(SEQ ID NO: 22) RWLLK; (SEQ ID NO: 23) RFLLK; (SEQ ID NO: 24) RYLLK; (SEQ ID NO: 25) RWLLR; (SEQ ID NO: 26) RFLLR; (SEQ ID NO: 27) RYLLR; (SEQ ID NO: 28) RWLVK; (SEQ ID NO: 29) RFLVK; (SEQ ID NO: 30) RYLVK; (SEQ ID NO: 31) RWLVR; (SEQ ID NO: 32) RFLVR; (SEQ ID NO: 33) RYLVR; (SEQ ID NO: 34) RWIVK; (SEQ ID NO: 35) RFIVK; (SEQ ID NO: 36) RYIVK; (SEQ ID NO: 37) RWIVR; (SEQ ID NO: 38) RFIVR; (SEQ ID NO: 39) RYIVR; (SEQ ID NO: 40) RWLSK; (SEQ ID NO: 41) RFLSK; (SEQ ID NO: 42) RYLSK; (SEQ ID NO: 43) RWLSR; (SEQ ID NO: 44) RFLSR; (SEQ ID NO: 45) RYLSR; (SEQ ID NO: 46) RWISK; (SEQ ID NO: 47) RFISK; (SEQ ID NO: 48) RYISK; (SEQ ID NO: 49) RWISR; (SEQ ID NO: 50) RFISR; (SEQ ID NO: 51) RYISR; (SEQ ID NO: 52) RWSVK; (SEQ ID NO: 53) RFSVK; (SEQ ID NO: 54) RYSVK; (SEQ ID NO: 55) RWSVR; (SEQ ID NO: 56) RFSVR; (SEQ ID NO: 57) RYSVR; (SEQ ID NO: 58) RWAVK; (SEQ ID NO: 59) RFAVK; (SEQ ID NO: 60) RYAVK; (SEQ ID NO: 61) RWAVR; (SEQ ID NO: 62) RFAVR; (SEQ ID NO: 63) RYAVR; (SEQ ID NO: 64) RWLGR; (SEQ ID NO: 65) RFLGR; (SEQ ID NO: 66) RYLGR; (SEQ ID NO: 67) RWLGK; (SEQ ID NO: 68) RFLGK; (SEQ ID NO: 69) RYLGK; (SEQ ID NO: 70) RWLAR; (SEQ ID NO: 71) RFLAR; (SEQ ID NO: 72) RYLAR; (SEQ ID NO: 73) RWLAK; (SEQ ID NO: 74) RFLAK; (SEQ ID NO: 75) RYLAK; (SEQ ID NO: 76) RWLTK; (SEQ ID NO: 77) RFLTK; (SEQ ID NO: 78) RYLTK; (SEQ ID NO: 79) RWLTR; (SEQ ID NO: 80) RFLTR; (SEQ ID NO: 81) RYLTR; (SEQ ID NO: 82) RWITK; (SEQ ID NO: 83) RFITK; (SEQ ID NO: 84) RYITK; (SEQ ID NO: 85) RWITR; (SEQ ID NO: 86) RFITR; (SEQ ID NO: 87) RYITR; (SEQ ID NO: 88) RWTVK; (SEQ ID NO: 89) RFTVK; (SEQ ID NO: 90) RYTVK; (SEQ ID NO: 91) RWTVR; (SEQ ID NO: 92) RFTVR; (SEQ ID NO: 93) RYTVR; (SEQ ID NO: 94) RWIRK; (SEQ ID NO: 95) RFIRK; (SEQ ID NO: 96) RYIRK; (SEQ ID NO: 97) RWIRR; (SEQ ID NO: 98) RFIRR; (SEQ ID NO: 99) RYIRR; (SEQ ID NO: 100) RWLRK; (SEQ ID NO: 101) RFLRK; (SEQ ID NO: 102) RYLRK; (SEQ ID NO: 103) RWLRR; (SEQ ID NO: 104) RFLRR; (SEQ ID NO: 105) RYLRR; (SEQ ID NO: 106) KWLLK; (SEQ ID NO: 107) KFLLK; (SEQ ID NO: 108) KYLLK; (SEQ ID NO: 109) KWLLR; (SEQ ID NO: 110) KFLLR; (SEQ ID NO: 111) KYLLR; (SEQ ID NO: 112) KWLVK; (SEQ ID NO: 113) KFLVK; (SEQ ID NO: 114) KYLVK; (SEQ ID NO: 115) KWLVR; (SEQ ID NO: 116) KFLVR; (SEQ ID NO: 117) KYLVR; (SEQ ID NO: 118) KWIVK; (SEQ ID NO: 119) KFIVK; (SEQ ID NO: 120) KYIVK; (SEQ ID NO: 121) KWIVR; (SEQ ID NO: 122) KFIVR; (SEQ ID NO: 123) KYIVR; (SEQ ID NO: 124) KWLSK; (SEQ ID NO: 125) KFLSK; (SEQ ID NO: 126) KYLSK; (SEQ ID NO: 127) KWLSR; (SEQ ID NO: 128) KFLSR; (SEQ ID NO: 129) KYLSR; (SEQ ID NO: 130) KWISK; (SEQ ID NO: 131) KFISK; (SEQ ID NO: 132) KYISK; (SEQ ID NO: 133) KWISR; (SEQ ID NO: 134) KFISR; (SEQ ID NO: 135) KYISR; (SEQ ID NO: 136) KWSVK; (SEQ ID NO: 137) KFSVK; (SEQ ID NO: 138) KYSVK; (SEQ ID NO: 139) KWSVR; (SEQ ID NO: 140) KFSVR; (SEQ ID NO: 141) KYSVR; (SEQ ID NO: 142) KWAVK; (SEQ ID NO: 143) KFAVK; (SEQ ID NO: 144) KYAVK; (SEQ ID NO: 145) KWAVR; (SEQ ID NO: 146) KFAVR; (SEQ ID NO: 147) KYAVR; (SEQ ID NO: 148) KWLGR; (SEQ ID NO: 149) KFLGR; (SEQ ID NO: 150) KYLGR; (SEQ ID NO: 151) KWLGK; (SEQ ID NO: 152) KFLGK; (SEQ ID NO: 153) KYLGK; (SEQ ID NO: 154) KWLAR; (SEQ ID NO: 155) KFLAR; (SEQ ID NO: 156) KYLAR; (SEQ ID NO: 157) KWLAK; (SEQ ID NO: 158) KFLAK; (SEQ ID NO: 159) KYLAK; (SEQ ID NO: 160) KWLTK; (SEQ ID NO: 161) KFLTK; (SEQ ID NO: 162) KYLTK; (SEQ ID NO: 163) KWLTR; (SEQ ID NO: 164) KFLTR; (SEQ ID NO: 165) KYLTR; (SEQ ID NO: 166) KWITK; (SEQ ID NO: 167) KFITK; (SEQ ID NO: 168) KYITK; (SEQ ID NO: 169) KWITR; (SEQ ID NO: 170) KFITR; (SEQ ID NO: 171) KYITR; (SEQ ID NO: 172) KWTVK; (SEQ ID NO: 173) KFTVK; (SEQ ID NO: 174) KYTVK; (SEQ ID NO: 175) KWTVR; (SEQ ID NO: 176) KFTVR; (SEQ ID NO: 177) KYTVR; (SEQ ID NO: 178) KWLRK; (SEQ ID NO: 179) KFLRK; (SEQ ID NO: 180) KYLRK; (SEQ ID NO: 181) KWLRR; (SEQ ID NO: 182) KFLRR; (SEQ ID NO: 183) KYLRR; (SEQ ID NO: 184) KWIRK; (SEQ ID NO: 185) KFIRK; (SEQ ID NO: 186) KYIRK; (SEQ ID NO: 187) KWIRR; (SEQ ID NO: 188) KFIRR; (SEQ ID NO: 189) KYIRR; (SEQ ID NO: 190) RWVVK; (SEQ ID NO: 191) RFVVK; (SEQ ID NO: 192) RYVVK; (SEQ ID NO: 193) RWVVR; (SEQ ID NO: 194) RFVVR; (SEQ ID NO: 195) RYVVR; (SEQ ID NO: 196) KWVVK; (SEQ ID NO: 197) KFVVK; (SEQ ID NO: 198) KYVVK; (SEQ ID NO: 199) KWVVR; (SEQ ID NO: 200) KFVVR; (SEQ ID NO: 201) KYVVR; (SEQ ID NO: 202) RWALK; (SEQ ID NO: 203) RFALK; (SEQ ID NO: 204) RYALK; (SEQ ID NO: 205) RWALR; (SEQ ID NO: 206) RFALR; (SEQ ID NO: 207) RYALR; (SEQ ID NO: 208) KWALK; (SEQ ID NO: 209) KFALK; (SEQ ID NO: 210) KYALK; (SEQ ID NO: 211) KWALR; (SEQ ID NO: 212) KFALR; (SEQ ID NO: 213) KYALR; (SEQ ID NO: 214) RWVLK; (SEQ ID NO: 215) RFVLK; (SEQ ID NO: 216) RYVLK; (SEQ ID NO: 217) RWVLR; (SEQ ID NO: 218) RFVLR; (SEQ ID NO: 219) RYVLR; (SEQ ID NO: 220) KWVLK; (SEQ ID NO: 221) KFVLK; (SEQ ID NO: 222) KYVLK; (SEQ ID NO: 223) KWVLR; (SEQ ID NO: 224) KFVLR; (SEQ ID NO: 225) KYVLR; (SEQ ID NO: 226) RWILK; (SEQ ID NO: 227) RFILK; (SEQ ID NO: 228) RYILK; (SEQ ID NO: 229) RWILR; (SEQ ID NO: 230) RFILR; (SEQ ID NO: 231) RYILR; (SEQ ID NO: 232) KWILK; (SEQ ID NO: 233) KFILK; (SEQ ID NO: 234) KYILK; (SEQ ID NO: 235) KWILR; (SEQ ID NO: 236) KFILR; (SEQ ID NO: 237) KYILR; (SEQ ID NO: 238) RWVIK; (SEQ ID NO: 239) RFVIK; (SEQ ID NO: 240) RYVIK; (SEQ ID NO: 241) RWVIR; (SEQ ID NO: 242) RFVIR; (SEQ ID NO: 243) RYVIR; (SEQ ID NO: 244) KWVIK; (SEQ ID NO: 245) KFVIK; (SEQ ID NO: 246) KYVIK; (SEQ ID NO: 247) KWVIR; (SEQ ID NO: 248) KFVIR; (SEQ ID NO: 249) KYVIR; (SEQ ID NO: 250) RWIIK; (SEQ ID NO: 251) RFIIK; (SEQ ID NO: 252) RYIIK; (SEQ ID NO: 253) RWIIR; (SEQ ID NO: 254) RFIIR; (SEQ ID NO: 255) RYIIR; (SEQ ID NO: 256) KWIIK; (SEQ ID NO: 257) KFIIK; (SEQ ID NO: 258) KYIIK; (SEQ ID NO: 259) KWIIR; (SEQ ID NO: 260) KFIIR; (SEQ ID NO: 261) KYIIR; (SEQ ID NO: 262) RWLIK; (SEQ ID NO: 263) RFLIK; (SEQ ID NO: 264) RYLIK; (SEQ ID NO: 265) RWLIR; (SEQ ID NO: 266) RFLIR; (SEQ ID NO: 267) RYLIR; (SEQ ID NO: 268) KWLIK; (SEQ ID NO: 269) KFLIK; (SEQ ID NO: 270) KYLIK; (SEQ ID NO: 271) KWLIR; (SEQ ID NO: 272) KFLIR; (SEQ ID NO: 273) KYLIR; (SEQ ID NO: 274) RWIAK; (SEQ ID NO: 275) RFIAK; (SEQ ID NO: 276) RYIAK; (SEQ ID NO: 277) RWIAR; (SEQ ID NO: 278) RFIAR; (SEQ ID NO: 279) RYIAR; (SEQ ID NO: 280) KWIAK; (SEQ ID NO: 281) KFIAK; (SEQ ID NO: 282) KYIAK; (SEQ ID NO: 283) KWIAR; (SEQ ID NO: 284) KFIAR; (SEQ ID NO: 285) KYIAR; (SEQ ID NO: 286) RWVAK; (SEQ ID NO: 287) RFVAK; (SEQ ID NO: 288) RYVAK; (SEQ ID NO: 289) RWVAR; (SEQ ID NO: 290) RFVAR; (SEQ ID NO: 291) RYVAR; (SEQ ID NO: 292) KWVAK; (SEQ ID NO: 293) KFVAK; (SEQ ID NO: 294) KYVAK; (SEQ ID NO: 295) KWVAR; (SEQ ID NO: 296) KFVAR; (SEQ ID NO: 297) KYVAR; (SEQ ID NO: 1206) RFSLK; and (SEQ ID NO: 1207) RWLVP.

These specific sequences are listed by way of example and they are not intended to be limiting on the scope of the present invention. In some preferred embodiments the oligopeptidic compound has or comprises the sequence RWLVK (SEQ ID NO: 28) or KFIVK (SEQ ID NO: 119). In still further embodiments, the oligopeptidic compound has or comprises the sequence RWLTK (SEQ ID NO: 76), RFLSK (SEQ ID NO: 41), RFSLK (SEQ ID NO: 1206), RWLSK (SEQ ID NO: 40), RWSVK (SEQ ID NO: 52) RWAVK (SEQ ID NO: 58) or RWLVP (SEQ ID NO: 1207).

Whilst the PCNA interacting motifs listed above are preferred motifs of the invention, in some embodiments any one or more of these motifs may be excluded, e.g. any 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 20 or more motifs may be excluded, such as any 25, 30, 40, 50 or more motifs or any integer in this range. Thus, in some embodiments the oligopeptidic compound does not have or comprise a sequence selected from any one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 22-297, 1206 and 1207.

Particular PCNA interacting motifs that may be excluded or disclaimed include any one or more of the following: KYMVR (SEQ ID NO: 298), KFLAK (SEQ ID NO: 158), KWLIK (SEQ ID NO: 268), KFLIK (SEQ ID NO: 269), KWLIOrn (SEQ ID NO: 299), KWLIDbu (SEQ ID NO: 300), and KWQLR (SEQ ID NO: 301). The oligopeptidic compound is preferably an isolated compound, e.g. an isolated peptide and most preferably the oligopeptidic compound is a synthetic compound, e.g. a synthetic peptide. The nucleic acid molecule encoding the oligopeptidic compound is preferably an isolated nucleic acid molecule and most preferably the nucleic acid molecule is a synthetic nucleic acid molecule. In other words, the oligopeptidic compound and its encoding nucleic acid molecule are non-native, i.e. non-naturally occurring, molecules.

The domain that facilitates the uptake of the oligopeptidic compound may be an uptake (import) peptide sequence, which may be a sequence which acts to transport the oligopeptidic compound into a cell, or across a cell membrane (i.e. into the interior of a cell). It may thus be a so-called “cell penetrating” sequence (or more particularly “cell penetrating peptide”) also known in the art as a protein transduction domain (PTD) or protein transduction sequence.

Accordingly, as noted above the invention may provide an agent or construct comprising (i) an oligopeptidic compound comprising an APIM motif (i.e. a PCNA-interacting motif) as defined herein, and (ii) a cell penetrating sequence (more particularly a cell penetrating peptide).

Cell penetrating peptide (CPP) technology has developed greatly over recent years and a wide variety of cell penetrating peptides are known and described in the art and indeed a range of such peptides are commercially available. Cell penetrating peptides may vary greatly in size, sequence and charge, and indeed in their mechanism of function (which is presently not known for some peptides and not fully elucidated for others), but share the common ability to translocate across the plasma membrane and deliver an attached or associated moiety (the so-called “cargo”) into the cytoplasm of a cell. CPPs are thus peptide-based delivery vectors.

Whilst CPPs are not characterized by a single structural or functional motif, tools to identify CPPs are available and the skilled person can readily determine whether a peptide sequence may function to facilitate the uptake of the peptide of which it forms a domain, i.e. whether a peptide sequence may function as an uptake (import) peptide, e.g. a CPP. For example, Hansen et al (Predicting cell-penetrating peptides, Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 2008, 60, pp. 572-579), provides a review of methods for CPP prediction based on the use of principal component analysis (“z-predictors”) and corresponding algorithms based on original work by Hällbrink et al (Prediction of Cell-Penetrating Peptides, International Journal of Peptide Research and Therapeutics, 2005, 11(4), pp. 249-259). In brief, the methodology works by computing z-scores of a candidate peptide as based on a numerical value and an associate range. If the z-scores fall within the range of known CPP z-scores, the examined peptides are classified as CPPs. The method was shown to have high accuracy (about 95% prediction of known CPPs).

Additional methods for the prediction of CPPs have been developed subsequently (see e.g. Sanders et al., Prediction of Cell Penetrating Peptides by Support Vector Machines, PLOS Computational Biology, 2011, 7(7), pp. 1-12, herein incorporated by reference) and a CPP database is available (Gautam et al., CPPSite: a curated database of cell penetrating peptides, Database, 2012, Article ID bas015 and http://crdd.osdd.net/raghava/cppsite/index.php, both herein incorporated by reference). Accordingly, any suitable CPP may find utility in the invention and, as discussed below, a variety of CPPs have already been identified and tested and could form the basis for determining and identifying new CPPs.

CPPs may be derived from naturally-occurring proteins which are able to translocate across cell membranes such as the Drosophila homeobox protein Antennapedia (a transcriptional factor), viral proteins such as the HIV-1 transcriptional factor TAT and the capsid protein VP22 from HSV-1, and/or they may be synthetically-derived, e.g. from chimeric proteins or synthetic polypeptides such as polyarginine. As noted above, there is not a single mechanism responsible for the transduction effect and hence the design of CPPs may be based on different structures and sequences. Cell penetrating peptides are also reviewed in Jarver et al. 2006 (Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1758, pages 260-263) and Table 1 below lists various representative peptides. U.S. Pat. No. 6,645,501 (herein incorporated by reference) further describes various cell penetrating peptides which might be used.

TABLE 1 CPP SEQUENCE REFERENCE Antp Class Penetratin RQIKIWFQNRRMKWKK Bolton (2000) (SEQ ID NO: 302) Eur. J. Neuro. 12:287 Penatratin RRMKWKK (SEQ ID NO: 303) U.S. Pat No.  derivatives NRRMKWKK (SEQ ID NO: 304) 6,472,507 QNRRMKWKK (SEQ ID NO: 305) EP4855781 FQNRRMKWKK (SEQ ID NO: 306) WO 97/12912 RREKWKK (SEQ ID NO: 307) RRQKWKK (SEQ ID NO: 308) KRMKWKK (SEQ ID NO: 309) RKMKWKK (SEQ ID NO: 310) RROKWKK (SEQ ID NO: 311) RRMKQKK (SEQ ID NO: 312) RRMKWFK (SEQ ID NO: 313) RORKWKK (SEQ ID NO: 314) RRMWKKK (SEQ ID NO: 315) RRMKKWK (SEQ ID NO: 316) (using standard single amino acid notation, ornithine (O), diaminobutyric acid (B), norleucine (N)) D- rqikiwfqnrrmkwkk Rouselle, C. et Penetratin (SEQ ID NO: 317) al. (2000) Mol. Pharm 57:679 Protegrin Class Pegelin RGGRLSYSRRRFSTSTGR Rouselle, C. et (SynB) (SEQ ID NO: 318) al. (2000) Mol. Pharm 57:679 HIV-TAT Class HIV-TAT GRKKRRQRRRPPQ Vives E.J Biol, (SEQ ID NO: 319) Chem 1997, 272:16010 Snyder (2004) PLOS 2: 186 47-57 OF YGRKKRRQRRR Potocky et al. HIV-TAT (SEQ ID NO: 320) (2003) JBC VP22 DAATATRGRSAASRPTERPRAPARSAS Elliott g. Cell RPRRVD (SEQ ID NO: 321) 1997, 88:223- 233 Amphipathic peptides MAP KLALKLALKALKAALKLA  Morris MC., (SEQ ID NO: 322) Nat Biotechnol. 2001, 19:1173-1176 Transportan GWTLNSAGYLLGKINLKALAALAKKIL Pooga M, (SEQ ID NO: 323) FASEB J 1998, 12:67- 77 Transportan- AGYLLGKINLKALAALAKKIL Soomets U, 10 (SEQ ID NO: 324) Biochim Biophys Acta 2000, 1467:165-176 KALA WEAKLAKALAKALAKHLAKALAKALK Oehike J., ACEA (SEQ ID NO: 325) Biochim Biophys Acta 1998, 1414:127-139 Pep-1 KETWWETWWTEWSQPKKKRKV Wyman (SEQ ID NO: 326) Biochemistry 1997, 36:3008-3017 Pep-2 KETWFETWFTEWSQPKKKRKV (SEQ ID NO: 327) MPG GALFLGFLGAAGSTMGAWSQPKSKRKV Wagstaff KM (SEQ ID NO: 328) Curr Med Chem 2006, 13:1371-1387 Vectocell VKRGLKLRHVRPRVTRMDV (SEQ ID NO: 329) Coupade peptides SRRARRSPRHLGSG* (SEQ ID NO: 330) (2005) LRRERQSRLRRERQSR* (SEQ ID NO: 331) Biochem. J. GAYDLRRRERQSRLRRRERQSR 407 (SEQ ID NO: 332) *indicates addition of cys  for conjugation to cargo Wr-T KETWWETWWTEWWTEWSQ-GPG-rrrrrrrr Kondo (2004) transporter (SEQ ID NO: 333) Mol. Can. r = D-enantiomer arginine Thera 1623 Other peptides R7 RRRRRRR (SEQ ID NO: 334) Rothbard et al., Nat. Med 6 (2000) 1253- 1257

Antennapedia-derived CPPs (Antp class) represent a class of particular interest, based around the 16 amino acid Penetratin sequence as shown in Table 1, which corresponds to the third loop of antennapedia protein and was shown to be responsible for translocation of the protein. Penetratin has been extensively developed as a delivery vehicle, including particularly for pharmaceutical use, and a wide range of Penetratin derivatives and modified sequences have been proposed and described. Reference may be made in particular to WO 91/1891, WO 00/1417, WO 00/29427, WO 2004/069279 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,080,724 (herein incorporated by reference). Thus, the 16 amino acid sequence of Penetratin may be modified and/or truncated, or the peptide may be chemically-modified or retro-, inverso- or retro-inverso analogues may be made whilst retaining cell-penetrating activity.

Another group of cell penetrating peptides which may advantageously be used are based on the HIV-TAT sequence and HIV-TAT and fragments thereof represent a preferred class of CPPs for use according to the present invention. Various TAT-based CPPs are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,656,122 (herein incorporated by reference). An exemplary HIV-TAT peptide as used in the Examples below is RKKRRQRRR (SEQ ID NO: 335) but it will readily be appreciated that longer or shorter TAT fragments may be used.

As mentioned above no particular structural features or sequence motifs are common to all CPPs. However, various classes of CPPs may be identified by particular features, such as for example peptides which are amphipathic and net positively charged. Other groups of CPPs may have a structure exhibiting high α-helical content. Another group may be peptides characterised by a high content of basic amino acids. CPPs may thus be or may comprise oligomers of basic amino acids such as arginine e.g. 5 to 20, 6 to 15 or 6 to 12 R residues e.g. R₇ (SEQ ID NO: 334), R₈ (SEQ ID NO: 336) or R₁₁(SEQ ID NO: 337) or QSR₈ (SEQ ID NO: 338).

Proline-rich amphipathic peptides are another class of CPP and such peptides characterised by the presence of pyrrolidine rings from prolines are described in Pujals et al. 2008 Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 60, pages 473-484 (herein incorporated by reference).

Other successfully developed CPPs include pVEC (Elmquist et al. 2003 Biol. Chem 384, pages 387-393; Holm et al. 2005 Febs Lett. 579, pages 5217-5222, all herein incorporated by reference) and calcitonin-derived peptides (Krauss et al. 2004 Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett., 14, pages 51-54 herein incorporated by reference).

Commercially available CPPs include Chariot, based on the Pep-1 peptide (Active Motif, France), the Syn-B vectors based on the protegrin peptide PG-1 (Syntem, France), and Express-si Delivery based on the MPG peptide from Genospectra, USA.

Other CPPs include the R41, R8, M918 and YTA-4 peptides (SEQ ID NOs: 1213-1216, respectively) disclosed in Eriksson et al. 2013, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, vol. 57(8), pp. 3704-3712 (incorporated herein by reference).

In some embodiments the CPPs may be cyclic peptides, such as those disclosed in Oh et al., 2014, Mol. Pharmaceutics, vol. 11, pp. 3528-3536 (incorporated herein by reference). In particular, the CPPs may be amphiphilic cyclic CPPs, particularly containing tryptophan and arginine residues. In some embodiments the CPPs may be cyclic polyarginine peptides and may be modified by the addition of a fatty acyl moiety, e.g. octanoyl, dodecanoyl, hexadecanoyl, N-acetyl-L-tryptophanyl-12-aminododecanoyl etc. Suitable cyclic CPPs for use in the invention are presented in SEQ ID NOs: 1217-1223.

In addition to publically available and reported CPPs, novel or derivative CPP peptides may be designed and synthesized based on known or reported criteria (e.g. known CPP sequences or features such as basic amino acid content, α-helical content etc. as discussed above). Additionally, randomly-designed or other peptides may be screened for CPP activity, for example by coupling or attaching such a peptide containing a reporter molecule, e.g. a detectable label or tag such as a fluorescent tag to the desired cargo (e.g. an oligopeptidic compound as described herein) and testing to see if the construct is translocated across the cell membrane, for example by adding these peptides to live cells followed by examination of cellular import e.g. using confocal microscopy.

Indeed, whilst it is generally the case that a CPP will penetrate or enter virtually any animal cell type, it has been surprising found that CPPs may also facilitate the uptake of peptides into microbial cells, including prokaryotic cells. It is thought that the capacity of CPPs to function in prokaryotic cells is a result of their structural similarity to antimicrobial peptides, e.g. short, cationic peptides with amphipathic properties. Nevertheless, it is evident from the data in the Examples that the primary anti-microbial, e.g. anti-bacterial, activity of the peptides of the invention arises from the APIM motif rather than the presence of a CPP sequence. It may in some cases be observed that successful or efficient delivery may be dependent, or may vary depending, on the precise nature of the cargo (e.g. cargo peptide sequence) and/or the CPP used. It would be well within the routine skill of the person skilled in the art to determine optimum peptide sequences and combinations etc, and to test and/or modify cargo and/or CPP sequence or structure etc.

Thus, by way of summary, the skilled person will be aware of suitable cell penetrating peptide sequences that, based on the findings of the inventors, may facilitate the uptake of the oligopeptidic compound, but by way of example the sequences may include Penetratin™, a 16-amino acid peptide corresponding to the third helix of the homeodomain of Antennapedia protein, R rich tags such as R6-Penetratin (in which arginine-residues were added to the N-terminus of Penetratin) and derivatives of the HIV Tat protein such as GRKKRRQRRRPPQQ (SEQ ID NO: 339).

Thus, in some embodiments the domain that facilitates the cellular uptake of the oligopeptidic compound is a CPP and may be selected from any one of:

(i) an antennapedia class peptide;

(ii) a protegrin class peptide;

(iii) a HIV-TAT class peptide;

(iv) an amphipathic class peptide selected from an amphipathic and net positively charged peptide, a proline-rich amphipathic peptide, a peptide based on the Pep-1 peptide and a peptide based on the MPG peptide;

(v) a peptide exhibiting high α-helical content;

(vi) a peptide comprising oligomers of basic amino acids;

(vii) pVEC;

(viii) a calcitonin-derived peptide and

(ix) an amphiphilic cyclic CPP.

In some embodiments the domain that facilitates the cellular uptake of the oligopeptidic compound is a CPP and may be selected from a sequence selected from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 302-1162 or a fragment and/or derivative thereof. The details and properties of the CPPs identified in SEQ ID NOs: 340-1162 can be found at http://crdd.osdd.net/raghava/cppsite/index.php, CPPSite: A database of cell penetrating peptides (herein incorporated by reference).

In some embodiments the domain that facilitates the cellular uptake of the oligopeptidic compound is SEQ ID NO: 337.

In some embodiments, the oligopeptidic compound also comprises one or more domains that provide a signal (target or transit) sequence. In some embodiments, the signal sequence may target the oligopeptidic compound to a specific cell type. Additionally or alternatively, in some embodiments the oligopeptidic compound may comprise a signal peptide that localises the compound to a specific intracellular compartment, e.g. the nucleus. In some embodiments, the uptake (import) peptide, e.g. CPP, may be sufficient to direct or localise the oligopeptidic compound to the appropriate cellular location.

The signal sequence or signal sequence domain may thus be viewed as any sequence which acts to localise, or alternatively put, to direct, translocate or transport, the oligopeptidic compound to any desired location e.g. to any desired cell type, e.g. prokaryotic or eukaryotic, or subcellular location, e.g. nucleus.

As mentioned above, in some embodiments the oligopeptidic compound (or constructs) for use in the use and methods of the invention may comprise one or more signal sequences (i.e. one or more domains that function as signal sequences), e.g. a signal peptide which directs the compound (or construct) into a particular sub-cellular compartment, such as the nucleus. Nuclear localisation signals (NLSs) are again well known in the art and widely described in the literature. For instance, a searchable database of known and predicted NLSs is available, see e.g. Cokol et al (Finding nuclear localization signals, EMBO Reports, 2000, 1(5), pp. 411-415, herein incorporated by reference). The PSORT II database, http://psort.hgc.jp/ (herein incorporated by reference) can be used for the prediction of nuclear localization of proteins based on NLSs. Accordingly, any known or functional NLS may find utility in the invention.

An NLS may vary in length and/or sequence and a wide range of specific NLS sequences have been described. In general, however, it has been found that peptides comprising positively charged amino acids (notably lysine (K), arginine (R) and/or histidine (H)) may function as an NLS. An exemplary NLS may thus be a peptide of e.g. 4-20, more particularly 4-15, 4-12, 4-10 or 4-8 amino acids, wherein at least 4 amino acids (and more particularly at least 60, 70, 75, 80, 85, or 90% of the amino acid residues in the NLS peptide) are positively charged amino acids, preferably selected from K, R or H. Such an exemplary NLS may for example have or comprise the sequence RKRH (SEQ ID NO: 1163).

Nuclear localisation signals, including both actual experimentally-determined and predicted or proposed NLS sequences, and strategies for identifying NLSs are also described in Lange et al., J. Biol. Chem. 2007, 282(8), 5101-5105; Makkerh et al., Current Biology 1996, 6(8), 1025-1027; Leslie et al., Methods 2006, 39, 291-308; and Lusk et al. Nature Reviews MCB 2007, 8, 414-420 (all herein incorporated by reference).

A classical NLS consists of either one (monopartite) or two (bipartite) stretches of basic amino acids. A monopartite NLS may be exemplified by the SV40 large T antigen NLS (¹²⁶PKKKRKV¹³² [SEQ ID NO: 1164]) and a bipartite NLS by the nucleoplasmin NLS (¹⁶⁶ KRPAATKKAGQAKKKK¹⁷⁶[SEQ ID NO: 1165]). The monopartite NLS consensus sequence K-[K/R]-X-[K/R] (SEQ ID NO: 1166) has been proposed and accordingly an NLS according to the present invention may in one embodiment comprise or consist of such a consensus sequence (where X is any amino acid).

A representative bipartite NLS according to the invention may have the sequence KR-[X]₅₋₂₀-KKKK (SEQ ID NO: 1167), e.g. KR-X₁₀-KKKK (SEQ ID NO: 1168) (where X is any amino acid).

An alternative exemplary bipartite NLS may take the form RKRH-[X]₂₋₁₀-KK (SEQ ID NO: 1169) e.g. RKRH-X₂-KK (SEQ ID NO: 1170), for example RKRH-II-KK (SEQ ID NO: 1171).

The oncoprotein c-myc NLS differs from classical NLSs in that only 3 of 9 amino acid residues are basic (PAAKRVKLD [SEQ ID NO: 1172]), indicating that an NLS need not necessarily conform to the consensus or classical sequences given above. Makkerh et al (supra) describe NLS sequences in which a cluster of basic amino acids (e.g. KKKK [SEQ ID NO: 1173]) is flanked by neutral and acidic residues, for example PAAKKKKLD (SEQ ID NO: 1174).

Other possible NLS sequences which may be given by way of example include: PKKKRKVL (SEQ ID NO: 1175), KKKRK (SEQ ID NO: 1176), KKKRVK (SEQ ID NO: 1177), KKKRKVL (SEQ ID NO: 1178) and RKKRKVL (SEQ ID NO: 1179). Any NLS which is a derivative of a known NLS e.g. the SV40, nucleoplasmin, UNG2 or c-myc NLS may be used.

A putative, proposed or predicted NLS sequence can be tested for NLS activity using principles and assays known and described in the art. For example a candidate NLS sequence may be attached to the desired cargo (in this case an oligopeptidic compound as defined herein) and the construct may be provided with a detectable reporter molecule (e.g. a tag or label which may be visualised, for example a fluorescent label) and contacted with a test cell. Distribution of the construct in the cell may then be determined.

Thus, by way of summary, the skilled person will be aware of suitable signal sequences, but by way of example the following are mentioned herein Examples of nuclear localisation sequences include the SV40 protein derivative KKKRK (SEQ ID NO: 1176).

Thus, in some embodiments the oligopeptidic compound comprises a signal sequence (i.e. a domain comprising a signal peptide) that localizes or directs the oligopeptidic compound to a sub-cellular location, such as a NLS and may be selected from any one of:

(i) a peptide of 4-20 amino acids, wherein at least 4 amino acids are positively charged amino acids, preferably selected from K, R or H; and/or

(ii) a sequence selected from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1163-1179 or a fragment and/or derivative thereof.

In some embodiments the nuclear localisation signal sequence comprises a sequence selected from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1163-1179 or a fragment and/or derivative thereof, preferably wherein said fragment and/or derivative comprises at least 4 positively charged amino acids, preferably selected from any of K, R or H.

In some embodiments an oligopeptidic compound or construct according to the present invention may comprise at least three domains, including (i) an APIM motif domain as defined herein, (ii) a linker domain, which may in some embodiments comprise a nuclear localisation signal sequence, and (iii) a peptide sequence domain that facilitates the cellular uptake of said compound or construct (i.e. an uptake/import peptide sequence domain, e.g. cell penetrating signal sequence domain).

The separate elements or components (domains) of a construct according to the present invention may be contained or presented in any order, but preferably in the orders indicated above (e.g. APIM oligopeptidic compound-CPP or APIM oligopeptidic compound-linker-CPP).

In some embodiments, the APIM motif is located at or towards the N-terminus of the peptide. For instance, the APIM motif may be described as being N-terminal to the peptide sequence domain that facilitates the cellular uptake of said compound (e.g. the CPP) and optionally N-terminal to the linker sequence, if present.

In a preferred embodiment, the oligopeptidic compound comprises a PCNA interacting motif as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 28, a nuclear localisation signal sequence/linker sequence as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 1176 and a cell penetrating signal sequence as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 337.

Furthermore, in some embodiments an oligopeptidic compound or construct according to the invention may contain more than one PCNA-interacting motif. Thus, alternatively put, an agent for use in the uses and methods of the present invention may contain or encode an oligopeptidic compound comprising more than one PCNA-interacting motif. A construct or oligopeptidic compound may for example contain 1-10, e.g. 1-6, or 1-4 or 1-3 or one or two motifs. Within a construct also containing a signal sequence, such motifs may be spaced or located according to choice, e.g. they may be grouped together, or they may be separated by signal sequence elements e.g. motif-motif-CPP, motif-linker-motif-CPP; or motif-linker-motif-motif-CPP; or motif-motif-linker-CPP etc.

As referred to herein a “fragment” may comprise at least 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98 or 99% of the amino acids of the sequence from which it is derived. Said fragment may be obtained from a central or N-terminal or C-terminal portions of the sequence. Whilst the size of the fragment will depend on the size of the original sequence, in some embodiments the fragments may be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 or more amino acid residues shorter than the sequence from which it is derived, e.g. 1-10, 2-9, 3-8, 4-7 amino acid residues shorter than the sequence from which it is derived.

As referred to herein a “derivative” of a sequence is at least 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98 or 99% identical to the sequence to which it is compared.

Sequence identity may be determined by, e.g. using the SWISS-PROT protein sequence databank using FASTA pep-cmp with a variable pamfactor, and gap creation penalty set at 12.0 and gap extension penalty set at 4.0, and a window of 2 amino acids. Preferably said comparison is made over the full length of the sequence, but may be made over a smaller window of comparison, e.g. less than 200, 100, 50, 20 or 10 contiguous amino acids.

Preferably such sequence identity related polypeptides, i.e. derivatives, are functionally equivalent to the peptides which are set forth in the recited SEQ ID NOs. Similarly, the peptides with sequences as set forth in the SEQ ID NOs. may be modified without affecting the sequence of the polypeptide as described below.

Furthermore, “fragments” as described herein may be functional equivalents. Preferably these fragments satisfy the identity (relative to a comparable region) conditions mentioned herein.

As referred to herein, to achieve “functional equivalence” the peptide may show some reduced efficacy in performing the function relative to the parent molecule (i.e. the molecule from which it was derived, e.g. by amino acid substitution), but preferably is as efficient or is more efficient. Thus, functional equivalence may relate to a peptide which is effective in localizing or directing the oligopeptidic compound to the cell type or cellular location, e.g. to facilitate to the uptake of the peptide as described above. This may be tested by comparison of the effects of the derivative peptide relative to the peptide from which it is derived in a qualitative or quantitative manner, e.g. by performing the in vitro analyses described above. Where quantitative results are possible, the derivative is at least 30, 50, 70 or 90% as effective as the parent peptide.

Functionally-equivalent peptides which are related to or derived from the parent peptide, may be obtained by modifying the parent amino acid sequence by single or multiple amino acid substitution, addition and/or deletion (providing they satisfy the above-mentioned sequence identity requirements), but without destroying the molecule's function. Preferably the parent sequence has less than 20 substitutions, additions or deletions, e.g. less than 10, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 such modifications. Such peptides may be encoded by “functionally-equivalent nucleic acid molecules” which may be generated by appropriate substitution, addition and/or deletion of one or more bases.

The domains (which may be viewed as components, elements or separate parts) of an oligopeptidic compound or construct as described herein may be attached or linked to one another in any desired or convenient way according to techniques well known in the art. Thus, the domains may be linked or conjugated chemically, e.g. using known chemical coupling technologies or the compound or constructs may be formed as a single whole using genetic engineering techniques e.g. techniques for forming fusion proteins, or they may simply be synthesized as a whole, e.g. using peptide synthesis techniques.

The domains may be linked directly to each other or they may be linked indirectly by means of one or more linker (or spacer) sequences. Thus, a linker sequence may interspace or separate two or more individual domains (i.e. parts, e.g. or separate motif elements) in an oligopeptidic construct or compound. The precise nature of the linker sequence is not critical and it may be of variable length and/or sequence, for example it may have 0-40, more particularly 0-20, 0-15, 0-12, 0-10, 0-8, or 0-6, 0-4 or 0-3 residues e.g. 1, 2 or 3 or more residues. By way of representative example the linker sequence, if present, may have 1-15, 1-12, 1-10, 1-8, 1-6 or 1-4 residues etc. The nature of the residues is not critical and they may for example be any amino acid, e.g. a neutral amino acid, or an aliphatic amino acid, or alternatively they may be hydrophobic, or polar or charged or structure-forming e.g. proline. A range of different linker sequences have been shown to be of use, including short (e.g. 1-6) sequences of neutral and/or aliphatic amino acids.

Exemplary linker sequences thus include any single amino acid residue, e.g. A, I, L, V, G, R, Q, T, or W, or a di-, tri- tetra- penta- or hexa-peptide composed of such residues.

As representative linkers may be mentioned I, II, IL, R, W, WW, WWW, RIL, RIW, GAQ, GAW, VAT, IILVI (SEQ ID NO: 1180), IILVIII (SEQ ID NO: 1181) etc.

The linkers between different domains (components, elements or parts) may be the same or different.

As mentioned above, in some embodiments the linker may comprise or consist of an NLS. Alternatively viewed, in some embodiments an NLS, when present, may function both as a signal peptide and a linker. Thus, the oligopeptidic compound may comprise a signal peptide (e.g. an NLS) and a linker.

Representative compounds (or more particularly constructs) for use in the methods and uses of the invention include:

(SEQ ID NO: 1182) MDRWLVKRILVATK, (SEQ ID NO: 1183) MDRWLVKRILKKKRKVATKG, (SEQ ID NO: 1184) MDRWLVKGAQPKKKRKVLRQIKIWFQNRRMKWKK, (SEQ ID NO: 1185) MDRWLVKGAWKKKRVKIIRKKRRQRRRK, (SEQ ID NO: 1186) MDRWLVKGAWKKKRKIIRKKRRQRRRG, (SEQ ID NO: 1187) MDRWLVKGAWKKKRKIIRKKRRQRRRK, (SEQ ID NO: 1188) MDRWLVKRIWKKKRKIIRKKRRQRRRK, (SEQ ID NO: 1189) MDRWLVKWWWKKKRKIIRKKRRQRRRK, (SEQ ID NO: 1190) MDRWLVKWWRKRHIIKKRKKRRQRRRK, (SEQ ID NO: 1191) MDRWLVKRIWKKKRKIIRRRRRRRRRRRK, (SEQ ID NO: 1192) MDRWLVKRIWKKKRKIIRQIKIWFQNRRMKWKK, (SEQ ID NO: 1193) MDRFLVKGAWRKRHIIKKRKKRRQRRRK, (SEQ ID NO: 1194) MDRWLVKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRRK, (SEQ ID NO: 1195) MDRWLVKWKKKRKIRKKRRQRRRK, (SEQ ID NO: 1196) MDRWLVKWRKRHIRKKRRQRRRK, (SEQ ID NO: 1197) Ac-MDRWLVKGAWRKRHIRKKRRQRRRK, (SEQ ID NO: 1198) Ac-MDRWLVKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR, (SEQ ID NO: 1199) Ac-MDRFLVKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR, (SEQ ID NO: 1200) Ac-MDRWLVKKKKRKRRRRRRRRRRRK, (SEQ ID NO: 1201) Ac-MDRWLVKKKKRKRRRRRRRRRRR, (SEQ ID NO: 1202) MDRWLVKRIWKKKRKIIRWLVKWWWRKKRRQRRRK (SEQ ID NO: 1203) MDRWSVKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR (SEQ ID NO: 1204) MDRWAVKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR (SEQ ID NO: 1208) MDRWLTKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR (SEQ ID NO: 1209) MDRFSLKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR (SEQ ID NO: 1210) MDRFLSKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR (SEQ ID NO: 1211) MDRWLSKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR or (SEQ ID NO: 1212) MDRWLVPWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR.

In a particularly preferred embodiment, the oligopeptidic compound comprises a sequence as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 1198, 1203, 1204 or 1208 to 1212. The oligopeptidic compounds shown above comprise N-terminal amino acids that do not form part of the domains that are essential for the compounds to have activity in the methods and uses of the invention, i.e. an “MD” sequence. Some of the peptides also comprise N-terminal modification, e.g. acetyl groups. These additional amino acids and modifications may facilitate the production of the oligopeptidic compounds, e.g. in vitro or in vivo, and/or help to protect the compounds from degradation in vivo. It will be evident that the oligopeptidic compounds do not require these additional amino acids or modifications for their activity. Accordingly, further representative sequences according to the invention include any of SEQ ID NOs: 1182 to 1204 or 1208 to 1212, omitting the N-terminal “MD” and/or “Ac” groups. In other embodiments, a C-terminal K or G residue may additionally or alternatively be omitted. Furthermore, the presence of additional amino acids or modifications at either terminus would not be expected to disrupt or inhibit the function of the oligopeptidic compounds described herein. Thus, in some embodiments, the oligopeptidic compound may comprise an N-terminal sequence, e.g. a sequence at the N-terminus that does not comprise a domain defined above, e.g. a so-called N-terminal flanking sequence. In some embodiments, the oligopeptidic compound may comprise a C-terminal sequence, e.g. a sequence at the C-terminus that does not comprise a domain defined above, e.g. a so-called C-terminal flanking sequence. In some embodiments, the oligopeptidic compound may comprise an N-terminal and C-terminal flanking sequence.

A flanking sequence may comprise from about 1-150 amino acids, such as 1-120, 1-100, 1-90, 1-80, 1-70, 1-60, 1-50, 1-40, 1-35, 1-30 etc. Thus, a flanking sequence may comprise 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 or 25 amino acids, e.g. 1-40, 2-39, 3-38, 4-37, 5-36, 6-35, 7-34, 8-33, 9-32, 10-31, 11-30, 12-29, 13-28, 14-27, 15-26 amino acids or any combination thereof.

Oligopeptidic compounds having sequences as set out in SEQ ID NOs. 1182-1204 and 1208-1212 comprise separate domains (i.e. components) making up the constructs (i.e. motif-containing sequence, linker/NLS, CPP, etc.) Thus, it will be seen that SEQ ID NOs. 1182-1204 and 1208-1212 represent constructs comprising at least one motif-containing sequence, a linker/NLS and a CPP, in some cases linked by linker sequences which may vary in sequence, as specified. NLS sequences based on the SV40 or UNG2 NLS sequences are used, and CPP sequences based on Penetratin, HIV-TAT or an R-rich peptide.

The standard amino acid one letter code is used herein, so K stands for lysine (Lys), I stands for isoleucine (Ile) and so on.

As mentioned above, the oligopeptidic compound, and more particularly, the APIM motif, may comprise non-conventional or non-standard amino acids. Other domains in the oligopeptidic compound may also incorporate non-standard amino acids. In some embodiments, the oligopeptidic compound may comprise one or more, e.g. at least 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 non-conventional amino acids, i.e. amino acids which possess a side chain that is not coded for by the standard genetic code, termed herein “non-coded amino acids” (see e.g. Table 2). These may be selected from amino acids which are formed through metabolic processes such as ornithine or taurine, and/or artificially modified amino acids such as 9H-fluoren-9-ylmethoxycarbonyl (Fmoc), (tert)-(B)utyl (o)xy (c)arbonyl (Boc), 2,2,5,7,8-pentamethylchroman-6-sulphonyl (Pmc) protected amino acids, or amino acids having the benzyloxy-carbonyl (Z) group. Preferably, where such non-coded amino acids are present, they are not located within the motif, but in some embodiments one or more non-coded amino acids are present within the motif. In some embodiments, non-coded amino acids are present in more than one domain of the oligopeptidic compound.

In vitro and/or in vivo stability of the oligopeptidic compound may be improved or enhanced through the use of stabilising or protecting means known in the art, for example the addition of protecting or stabilising groups, incorporation of amino acid derivatives or analogues or chemical modification of amino acids, Such protecting or stabilising groups may for example be added at the N and/or C-terminus. An example of such a group is an acetyl group and other protecting groups or groups which might stabilise a peptide are known in the art.

The oligopeptidic compounds of the invention will typically comprise only amino acids having the L-configuration, but one or more amino acids having the D configuration may be present. In some embodiments the oligopeptidic compound contains at least 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 D-amino acids and they are preferably found in the motif, but in another embodiment, D-amino acids are present only outside of the motif. In a still further embodiment, D-amino acids may be found in more than one domain of the oligopeptidic compound. The oligopeptidic compound may be linear or cyclic.

Thus, included particularly are retro-inverso oligopeptidic compounds of the oligopeptidic compounds of the invention (and more particularly retro-inverso peptides). Retro-inverso oligopeptidic compounds comprise D-amino acids in reverse (opposite) order to the parental or reference compound sequence. A retro-inverso analogue thus has reversed termini and reversed order of e.g. peptide bonds, while approximately maintaining the topology of the side chains as in the parental or reference sequence.

The oligopeptidic compound may include partial retro-inverso sequences, i.e. a domain or part of a domain may comprise a retro-inverso sequence.

By “oligopeptidic compound” is meant a compound which is composed of amino acids or equivalent subunits, which are linked together by peptide or equivalent bonds. Thus, the term “oligopeptidic compound” includes peptides and peptidomimetics.

By “equivalent subunit” is meant a subunit which is structurally and functionally similar to an amino acid. The backbone moiety of the subunit may differ from a standard amino acid, e.g. it may incorporate one or more nitrogen atoms instead of one or more carbon atoms. In preferred embodiments, the subunit comprises a standard amino acid backbone, i.e. the backbone of a standard or coded amino acid. In other words, preferably the subunit is an amino acid. However, the amino acid subunit may comprise a non-standard (non-coded) R-group.

By “peptidomimetic” is meant a compound which is functionally equivalent or similar to a peptide and which can adopt a three-dimensional structure similar to its peptide counterparts, but which is not solely composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. A preferred class of peptidomimetics are peptoids, i.e. N-substituted glycines. Peptoids are closely related to their natural peptide counterparts, but they differ chemically in that their side chains are appended to nitrogen atoms along the molecule's backbone, rather than to the α-carbons as they are in amino acids.

Peptidomimetics, particularly non-peptidic molecules may be generated through various processes, including conformational-based drug design, screening, focused library design and classical medicinal chemistry. Not only may oligomers of unnatural amino acids or other organic building blocks be used, but also carbohydrates, heterocyclic or macrocyclic compounds or any organic molecule that comprises structural elements and conformation that provides a molecular electrostatic surface that mimics the same properties of the 3-dimensional conformation of the peptide may be used by methods known in the art.

Thus the peptidomimetics may bear little or no resemblance to a peptide backbone. Peptidomimetics may comprise an entirely synthetic non-peptide form (e.g. based on a carbohydrate backbone with appropriate substituents) or may retain one or more elements of the peptide on which it is based, e.g. by derivatizing one or more amino acids or replacing one or more amino acids with alternative non-peptide components. Peptide-like templates include pseudopeptides and cyclic peptides. Structural elements considered redundant for the function of the peptide may be minimized to retain a scaffold function only or removed where appropriate.

In preferred embodiments, peptidomimetics retain one or more peptide elements, i.e. more than one amino acid, although such amino acids may be replaced with a non-standard or structural analogue thereof. Amino acids retained in the sequences may also be derivatised or modified (e.g. labelled, glycosylated or methylated) as long as the functional properties of the oligopeptidic compound are retained. The peptidomimetics are referred to as being “derivable from” a certain polypeptide sequence. By this it is meant that the peptidomimetic is designed with reference to the peptide sequence defined above, such that it retains the structural features of the peptide which are essential for its function. This may be the particular side chains of the peptide, or hydrogen bonding potential of the structure. Such features may be provided by non-peptide components or one or more of the amino acid residues or the bonds linking said amino acid residues of the polypeptide may be modified so as to improve certain functions of the peptide such as stability or protease resistance, while retaining the structural features of the peptide which are essential for its function.

Examples of non-standard or structural analogue amino acids which may be used are D amino acids, amide isosteres (such as N-methyl amide, retro-inverse amide, thioamide, thioester, phosphonate, ketomethylene, hydroxymethylene, fluorovinyl, (E)-vinyl, methyleneamino, methylenethio or alkane), L-N methylamino acids, D-α methylamino acids, D-N-methylamino acids. Examples of non-conventional, i.e. non-coded, amino acids are listed in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Non-conventional Non-conventional amino acid Code amino acid Code α-aminobutyric acid Abu L-N-methylalanine Nmala α-amino-α-methylbutyrate Mgabu L-N-methylarginine Nmarg aminocyclopropane- Cpro L-N-methylasparagine Nmasn carboxylate L-N-methylaspartic acid Nmasp aminoisobutyric acid Aib L-N-methylcysteine Nmcys aminonorbornyl- Norb L-N-methylglutamine Nmgln carboxylate L-N-methylglutamic acid Nmglu cyclohexylalanine Chexa L-N-methylhistidine Nmhis cyclopentylalanine Cpen L-N-methylisolleucine Nmile D-alanine Dal L-N-methylleucine Nmleu D-arginine Darg L-N-methyllysine Nmlys D-aspartic acid Dasp L-N-methylmethionine Nmmet D-cysteine Dcys L-N-methylnorleucine Nmnle D-glutamine Dgln L-N-methylnorvaline Nmnva D-glutamic acid Dglu L-N-methylornithine Nmorn D-histidine Dhis L-N-methylphenylalanine Nmphe D-isoleucine Dile L-N-methylproline Nmpro D-leucine Dleu L-N-methylserine Nmser D-lysine Dlys L-N-methylthreonine Nmthr D-methionine Dmet L-N-methyltryptophan Nmtrp D-ornithine Dorn L-N-methyltyrosine Nmtyr D-phenylalanine Dphe L-N-methylvaline Nmval D-proline Dpro L-N-methylethylglycine Nmetg D-serine Dser L-N-methyl-t-butylglycine Nmtbug D-threonine Dthr L-norleucine Nle D-tryptophan Dtrp L-norvaline Nva D-tyrosine Dtyr α-methyl-aminoisobutyrate Maib D-valine Dval α-methyl-γ-aminobutyrate Mgabu D-α-methylalanine Dmala α-methylcyclohexylalanine Mchexa D-α-methylarginine Dmarg α-methylcylcopentylalanine Mcpen D-α-methylasparagine Dmasn α-methyl-α-napthylalanine Manap D-α-methylaspartate Dmasp α-methylpenicillamine Mpen D-α-methylcysteine Dmcys N-(4-aminobutyl)glycine Nglu D-α-methylglutamine Dmgln N-(2-aminoethyl)glycine Naeg D-α-methylhistidine Dmhis N-(3-aminopropyl)glycine Norn D-α-methylisoleucine Dmile N-amino-α-methylbutyrate Nmaabu D-α-methylleucine Dmleu α-napthylalanine Anap D-α-methyllysine Dmlys N-benzylglycine Nphe D-α-methylmethionine Dmmet N-(2-carbamylethyl)glycine Ngln D-α-methylornithine Dmorn N-(carbamylmethyl)glycine Nasn D-α-methylphenylalanine Dmphe N-(2-carboxyethyl)glycine Nglu D-α-methylproline Dmpro N-(carboxymethyl)glycine Nasp D-α-methylserine Dmser N-cyclobutylglycine Ncbut D-α-methylthreonine Dmthr N-cycloheptylglycine Nchep D-α-methyltryptophan Dmtrp N-cyclohexylglycine Nchex D-α-methyltyrosine Dmty N-cyclodecylglycine Ncdec D-α-methylvaline Dmval N-cylcododecylglycine Ncdod D-N-methylalanine Dnmala N-cyclooctylglycine Ncoct D-N-methylarginine Dnmarg N-cyclopropylglycine Ncpro D-N-methylasparagine Dnmasn N-cycloundecylglycine Ncund D-N-methylaspartate Dnmasp N-(2,2-diphenylethyl)glycine Nbhm D-N-methylcysteine Dnmcys N-(3,3-diphenylpropyl)glycine Nbhe D-N-methylglutamine Dnmgln N-(3-guanidinopropyl)glycine Narg D-N-methylglutamate Dnmglu N-(1-hydroxyethyl)glycine Nthr D-N-methylhistidine Dnmhis N-(hydroxyethyl))glycine Nser D-N-methylisoleucine Dnmile N-(imidazolylethyl))glycine Nhis D-N-methylleucine Dnmleu N-(3-indolylyethyl)glycine Nhtrp D-N-methyllysine Dnmlys N-methyl-γ-aminobutyrate Nmgabu N-methylcyclohexylalanine Nmchexa D-N-methylmethionine Dnmmet D-N-methylornithine Dnmorn N-methylcyclopentylalanine Nmcpen N-methylglycine Nala D-N-methylphenylalanine Dnmphe N-methylaminoisobutyrate Nmaib D-N-methylproline Dnmpro N-(1-methylpropyl)glycine Nile D-N-methylserine Dnmser N-(2-methylpropyl)glycine Nleu D-N-methylthreonine Dnmthr D-N-methyltryptophan Dnmtrp N-(1-methylethyl)glycine Nval D-N-methyltyrosine Dnmtyr N-methyla-napthylalanine Nmanap D-N-methylvaline Dnmval N-methylpenicillamine Nmpen γ-aminobutyric acid Gabu N-(p-hydroxyphenyl)glycine Nhtyr L-t-butylglycine Tbug N-(thiomethyl)glycine Ncys L-ethylglycine Etg penicillamine Pen L-homophenylalanine Hphe L-α-methylalanine Mala L-α-methylarginine Marg L-α-methylasparagine Masn L-α-methylaspartate Masp L-α-methyl-t-butylglycine Mtbug L-α-methylcysteine Mcys L-methylethylglycine Metg L-α-methylglutamine Mgln L-α-methylglutamate Mglu L-α-methylhistidine Mhis L-α-methylhomophenylalanine Mhphe L-α-methylisoleucine Mile N-(2-methylthioethyl)glycine Nmet L-α-methylleucine Mleu L-α-methyllysine Mlys L-α-methylmethionine Mmet L-α-methylnorleucine Mnle L-α-methylnorvaline Mnva L-α-methylornithine Morn L-α-methylphenylalanine Mphe L-α-methylproline Mpro L-α-methylserine Mser L-α-methylthreonine Mthr L-α-methyltryptophan Mtrp L-α-methyltyrosine Mtyr L-α-methylvaline Mval L-N-methylhomophenylalanine Nmhphe N-(N-(2,2-diphenylethyl) Nnbhm N-(N-(3,3-diphenylpropyl) Nnbhe carbamylmethyl)glycine carbamylmethyl)glycine 1-carboxy-1-(2,2-diphenyl- Nmbc L-O-methyl serine Omser ethylamino)cyclopropane L-O-methyl homoserine Omhser

In preferred embodiments, the oligopeptidic compound is a peptide. In particularly preferred embodiments, the oligopeptidic compound is a peptide consisting of L-amino acids. In yet a further preferred embodiment, the oligopeptidic compound is a peptide consisting of standard or coded L-amino acids.

As mentioned above, the oligopeptidic compound may comprise non-standard amino acids. Thus, in some embodiments the oligopeptidic compound may incorporate di-amino acids and/or β-amino acids. However, in preferred embodiments, at least the APIM motif domain, consists of α-amino acids. Most preferably, the oligopeptidic compound, i.e. all domains and optionally all flanking sequences, consists of α-amino acids.

As mentioned above, the oligopeptidic compound defined herein comprises more than 5 subunits, but the length of the construct will depend on the size of the uptake peptide sequence and on the number and size of other domains, e.g. linker domains, flanking sequences etc, if present. Thus, the prefix “oligo” is used to designate a relatively small number of subunits such as amino acids, i.e. less than 200, preferably less than 150, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60 or 50 subunits. The oligopeptidic compound of the invention may thus comprise more than 5 but no more than 200 subunits. Preferably, it comprises at least 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 or 25 subunits. Alternatively defined it comprises no more than 50, 45, 40, 35, 34, 33, 32, 31 or 30 subunits. Representative subunit ranges thus include 12-50, 12-45, 12-40, 12-35, 12-30, 12-25, 12-22, 12-20, 12-18 etc, 12-30 and 12-40 being preferred.

The nature of the subunits of the oligopeptidic compound outside of the APIM motif domain and the uptake peptide sequence is not critical, so the subunits outside of the motif may for example be those found in a native protein comprising the motif, such as hABH2, or they may be alanine residues or any other suitable residues.

Peptidomimetics typically have a longer half life within a patient's body, so they may be preferred in embodiments where a longer lasting effect is desired. This can help reduce the frequency at which the composition has to be re-administered. Furthermore, peptidomimetics may be particularly useful in the in vitro methods described herein. However, for bio-safety reasons a shorter half life may be preferred in other embodiments; in those embodiments peptides are preferred.

The oligopeptidic compound may form part of a larger unit, e.g. it may be fused to a polypeptide to form a recombinant fusion protein or attached to a scaffold to form a peptide aptamer. Thus, fusion proteins or aptamers incorporating the oligopeptidic compound may also find utility in the uses and methods of the invention, i.e. in some embodiments the agent may be a fusion protein or aptamer comprising the oligopeptidic compound defined above.

Yet further aspects include pharmaceutical compositions comprising the agent defined herein, e.g. comprising the oligopeptidic compound, fusion protein or aptamer, together with at least one pharmacologically acceptable carrier or excipient, wherein said composition is for use in the uses and methods of the invention defined below.

In a further aspect, a nucleic acid molecule encoding a peptide having or comprising (e.g. of) SEQ ID NO: 1, as defined above, is provided for use in the methods and uses of the invention. Alternatively viewed, the agent or composition for use in the uses and methods of the invention may be a nucleic acid molecule encoding a peptide having or comprising (e.g. of) SEQ ID NO: 1, as defined above. In this respect, the nucleic acid molecule may not need to encode all of the domains of the oligopeptidic compound described above, e.g. the domain that facilitates the cellular uptake of the peptide. For instance, the nucleic acid molecule may be delivered into the cell by another mechanism, e.g. via a liposome. However, in a preferred embodiment, the invention provides a nucleic acid molecule encoding an oligopeptidic compound or construct (e.g. a peptide) as defined above, comprising a PCNA interacting motif (APIM motif) domain and a peptide sequence (domain) that facilitates the uptake of said peptide. Also provided is the complement of such a nucleic acid molecule for use in the uses and methods of the invention. Thus, in some embodiments the nucleic acid molecule may also encode one or more linker and/or signal sequences, as defined above.

The nucleic acid molecule of the invention comprises at least 15 nucleotides, preferably at least 36 nucleotides, and preferably no more than 800 nucleotides, more preferably no more than 700, 650, 600, 550, 500, 450, 400, 350, 300, 250, 200, 150, 100, 75 or 50 nucleotides. The nucleic acid molecule is preferably an isolated or synthetic molecule.

A further aspect relates to a vector comprising a nucleic acid molecule as defined herein for use in the uses and methods defined below. Preferably, the vector comprises a promoter sequence operably linked to the sequence encoding a peptide as defined above. The vector may also contain further elements typically found in a vector such as an origin of replication, a selectable marker such as antibiotic resistance, and/or a multiple cloning site. The vector may further be an expression vector, and may comprise further elements, e.g. transcriptional and/or translational control or regulatory elements for expression of the nucleic acid molecules. Such control elements, e.g. promoters, ribosome binding sites, enhancers, terminators etc. are well known and widely described in the art.

The vector may for example be a plasmid or a viral genome (or part thereof), preferably the viral genome is from a virus selected from a retrovirus, an adenovirus and an adenovirus-associated virus. In some embodiments, e.g. where the vector comprises a nucleic acid molecule encoding a bactericidal peptide, the vector may be a viral genome (or part thereof) from a virus capable of infecting a bacterium such as a bacteriophage. Thus, in some embodiments, the vector may be administered in the form of a virus comprising a vector containing a nucleic acid molecule encoding an oligopeptidic compound described above. Alternatively viewed, in some embodiments the vector may be a virus.

As mentioned above, there is provided a composition (e.g. a pharmaceutical composition) comprising an agent as defined herein for use in the methods and uses of the invention. Accordingly, said composition (e.g. a pharmaceutical composition) may comprise an oligopeptidic compound (including a fusion protein or aptamer) and/or nucleic acid molecule as defined herein and/or a vector as defined herein, together with at least one pharmacologically (or pharmaceutically) acceptable carrier or excipient.

The excipient may include any excipients known in the art, for example any carrier or diluent or any other ingredient or agent such as buffer, antioxidant, chelator, binder, coating, disintegrant, filler, flavour, colour, glidant, lubricant, preservative, sorbent and/or sweetener etc.

The excipient may be selected from, for example, lactic acid, dextrose, sodium metabisulfate, benzyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, propylene glycol, microcrystalline cellulose, lactose, starch, chitosan, pregelatinized starch, calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, dextrates, dextrin, dextrose, dibasic calcium phosphate dihydrate, tribasic calcium phosphate, magnesium carbonate, magnesium oxide, maltodextrin, mannitol, powdered cellulose, sodium chloride, sorbitol and/or talc.

The pharmaceutical composition may be provided in any form known in the art, for example as a tablet, capsule, coated tablet, liquid, suspension, tab, sachet, implant, inhalant, powder, pellet, emulsion, lyophilisate, effervescent, spray, salve, emulsion, balm, plaster or any mixtures thereof. It may be provided e.g. as a gastric fluid-resistant preparation and/or in sustained action form. It may be a form suitable for oral, parenteral, topical, rectal, genital, subcutaneous, transurethral, transdermal, intranasal, intraperitoneal, intramuscular and/or intravenous administration and/or for administration by inhalation. In embodiments where the composition is used in combination with UV radiotherapy, the composition preferably may be formulated for topical administration, e.g. for the treatment or prevention of a bacterial infection in a wound, including a surgical wound.

In a representative embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition may be in a form suitable for liposomal administration, so preferably liposomes containing the pharmaceutical composition are provided. When liposomes are used, it may not be necessary to include a further excipient, so also provided are liposomes containing an agent, e.g. oligopeptidic compound, as defined herein, for use in the methods and uses of the invention.

The term “treatment” as used herein refers broadly to any effect or step (or intervention) beneficial in the management of a clinical condition or disorder and thus includes both therapeutic and prophylactic treatments. Treatment may include reducing, alleviating, ameliorating, slowing the development of, or eliminating the condition or one or more symptoms thereof, which is being treated, relative to the condition or symptom prior to the treatment, or in any way improving the clinical status of the subject. A treatment may include any clinical step or intervention which contributes to, or is a part of, a treatment programme or regimen. A prophylactic treatment may include delaying, limiting, reducing or preventing the condition or the onset of the condition, or one or more symptoms thereof, for example relative to the condition or symptom prior to the prophylactic treatment. Prophylaxis thus explicitly includes both absolute prevention of occurrence or development of the condition, or symptom thereof, and any delay in the onset or development of the condition or symptom, or reduction or limitation on the development or progression of the condition or symptom.

Thus, treatment includes killing, inhibiting or slowing the growth of microbial cells, or the increase in size of a body or population of microbial cells, reducing microbial cell number or preventing the spread of microbial cells (e.g. to another anatomic site), reducing the size of a microbial cell colony or infection site etc. The term “treatment” does not necessarily imply the cure or complete abolition or elimination of microbial cell growth, or growth of microbial cells.

The term “inhibit” is used broadly to include any reduction or decrease in microbial cell growth as well as the prevention or abolition of microbial cell growth. “Inhibition” thus includes the reduction or prevention of microbial cell growth, e.g. including reducing the rate of cell growth. This may be determined by any appropriate or convenient means, such as determining or assessing cell number, cell viability and/or cell death etc., as may be determined by techniques well known in the art.

“Growth” of microbial cells as referred to herein is also used broadly to include any aspect of microbial cell growth, including in particular the proliferation (i.e. increase in number) of microbial cells.

The agents as defined herein may thus be used in the treatment or prevention of any microbial infection, which may be a disease or condition (used broadly herein to include any disorder or any clinical situation) which is responsive to reduction of microbial cell growth (particularly microbial cell proliferation). The agents accordingly find utility in any therapy (or treatment) which targets microbial cell growth (or proliferation). In other words, the agents may be used in any therapeutic application in which it desirable or advantageous to inhibit microbial cell proliferation.

A “microbial infection” may be defined as any atypical, unwanted, undesirable, excessive and/or harmful infection and includes a “microbial infectious disease” and may be defined as a disease, condition or disorder caused by the invasion of a subject, e.g. one or more organs or tissues of said subject, by one or more disease-causing microorganisms and their subsequent multiplication. In some instances, an infection or infectious disease may be characterised by the reaction of the subject (e.g. organ or tissues of said subject) to said organisms and, in some cases, to the toxins produced by said organisms. A microbial infection or microbial infectious disease may be local or systemic. A microbial infection may be any bacterial or fungal infection, i.e. caused by a bacterium or fungus.

Since the therapeutic applications and utilities of the present invention may generally involve inhibiting microbial cell proliferation, any proliferating microbial cell may be targeted in the therapies and utilities disclosed and encompassed herein. Such proliferating microbial cells may include bacterial and/or fungal cells.

In some aspects of the invention the bacteria may be a gram positive or gram negative, or gram test non-responsive. They may be aerobic or anaerobic bacteria. For instance, the bacteria may be from any of the genus Acinetobacter, Bacillus, Burkholderia, Chlamydia, Clostridium, Helicobacter, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Pseudomonas, Legionella, Listeria, Mycobacterium, Proteus, Klebsiella, Fusobacterium or other enteric or coliform bacteria.

Thus, for instance, the microbial infection or microbial infectious disease (e.g. bacterial infection or bacterial infectious disease) may be caused by a gram-positive bacterium such as, M. tuberculosis, M. bovis, M. typhimurium, M. bovis strain BCG, BCG substrains, M. avium, M. intracellulare, M. africanum, M. kansasii, M. marinum, M. ulcerans, M. avium subspecies paratuberculosis, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus equi, Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus agalactiae, Listeria monocytogenes, Listeria ivanovii, Bacillus anthracis, B. subtilis, Nocardia asteroides, Actinomyces israelii, Propionibacterium acnes, and Enterococcus species.

In other embodiments, the microbial infection or microbial infectious disease (e.g. bacterial infection or bacterial infectious disease) may be caused by a gram-negative bacterium such as Clostridium tetani, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium botulinum, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Vibrio cholerae, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Pasteurella haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, Legionella pneumophila, Salmonella typhi, Brucella abortus, Chlamydi trachomatis, Chlamydia psittaci, Coxiella burnetti, Escherichia coli, Neiserria meningitidis, Neiserria gonorrhea, Haemophilus influenzae, Haemophilus ducreyi, Yersinia pestis, Yersinia enterolitica, Escherichia coli, E. hirae, Burkholderia cepacia, Burkholderia pseudomallei, Francisella tularensis, Bacteroides fragilis, Fusobascterium nucleatum, and Cowdria ruminantium.

In some embodiments, the microbial infection or microbial infectious disease may be caused by a bacterium is selected from the following genera: Achromobacter, Acinetobacter, Actinobacillus, Aeromonas, Agrobacterium, Alcaligenes, Alteromonas, Bacteroides, Bartonella, Borrelia, Bordetella, Brucella, Burkholderia, Campylobacter, Cardiobacterium, Chlamydia, Chlamydophila, Chromobacterium, Chyseobacterium, Chryseomonas, Citrobacter, Clostridium, Comamonas, Corynebacterium, Coxiella, Cryptobacterium, Edwardsiella, Eikenella, Enterobacter, Enterococcus, Erwinia, Helicobacter, Kingella, Klebsiella, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Legionella, Leptospira, Leptotrichia, Leuconostoc, Listeria, Listonella, Mobiluncus, Moraxella, Morganella, Mycobacterium, Mycoplasma, Neisseria, Nocardia, Nocardiopsis, Pantoea, Parachlamydia, Pasteurella, Peptococcus, Peptostreptococcus, Prevotella, Propionibacterium, Proteus, Providencia, Pseudomonas, Ralstonia, Rickettsia, Salmonella, Shewenella, Shigella, Sphingobacterium, Sphingomonas, Staphylococcus (e.g. Staphylococcus aureus NCTC 6571 also called Oxford Staph.), Stenotrophomonas, Streptobacillus, Streptococcus, Streptomyces, Treponem and Yersinia. In some embodiments, the bacterium is a MDR bacterium.

In some embodiments, the MDR bacterium is a Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacterium. Alternatively viewed, the MDR bacterial infection is an MRSA infection.

MRSA infections are caused by strains of Staphylococcus aureus that have become resistant to the antibiotics commonly used to treat ordinary Staphylococcus aureus infections.

Most MRSA infections occur in people who have been in hospitals or other health care settings, such as nursing homes and dialysis centres, where it is known as health care-associated MRSA (HA-MRSA). HA-MRSA infections typically are associated with invasive procedures such as surgery or the use of devices, such as intravenous tubing or artificial joints.

MRSA infections may also occur in the wider community, i.e. among healthy people; this form of MRSA infection, community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA), often begins as a painful skin boil. It is spread by skin-to-skin contact and at-risk populations include groups that frequently are in contact with other people, such as high school wrestlers, child care workers and people who live in crowded conditions.

Many strains of MRSA have been identified and any strain of MRSA may be treated using the agents, compositions and methods of the invention. Particular strains are described below and identified in WO 2010/139957 (incorporated herein by reference) and may be viewed as preferred strains to be treated according to the present invention.

MRSA 1021 b is resistant to penicillin, clindamycin, gentamycin, fusidic acid erythromycin, trimethoprin, sulphamethoxazole, cefoxitin, ciprofloxacin, and fosphomycin glucose 6 phosphate.

MRSA 1141 b is resistant to penicillin, clindamycin, fusidic acid, erythromycin, trimethoprin, cefoxitin, ciprofloxacin and mupirocin.

MRSA 1108 is resistant to penicillin, fusidic acid, trimethoprin, cefoxitin, rifampicin and ciprofloxacin.

MRSA 1047 is resistant to penicillin, fusidic acid, erythromycin, trimethoprin, cefoxitin, ciprofloxacin, mupirocin, chloramphenicol, and fosphomycin glucose 6 phosphate.

MRSA 1040 is resistant to penicillin, gentamycin, fusidic acid, erythromycin, trimethoprin, sulphamethoxazole, tetracycline, cefoxitin, ciprofloxacin and mupirocin.

MRSA 1096 is resistant to penicillin, gentamycin, erythromycin, trimethoprin, sulphamethoxazole, cefoxitin and ciprofloxacin.

Staphylococcus aureus ATCC-43300 is resistant to methicillin and oxacillin.

Particularly preferred strains to be treated according to the present invention are MRSA 1040 and/or MRSA 1096.

In some embodiments, an MRSA infection may be treated using an agent or composition of the invention in combination with an antibiotic. In some embodiments, the antibiotic is a macrolide antibiotic, such as Azithromycin, Erythromycin, Clarithromycin, Telithromycin, Carbomycin A, Josamycin, Kitasamycin, Midecamycin/midecamycin acetate, Oleandomycin, Solithromycin, Spiramycin, Troleandomycin, Tylosin/tylocine or Roxithromycin. In some embodiments, the macrolide antibiotic is Azithromycin or Erythromycin.

In some embodiments the MDR bacterium is an Enterococcus faecium bacterium. Alternatively viewed, the MDR bacterial infection is an Enterococcus faecium infection.

An example of an MDR strain of Enterococcus faecium is Enterococcus faecium CCUG 37832 (TO-3).

Enterococcus faecium is commonly associated with endocarditis, urinary tract infections and infections in wounds. Enterococcus faecium may also cause meningitis, e.g. neonatal meningitis. Thus, in some embodiments, the subject to be treated according to the methods and uses of the invention has endocarditis, a urinary tract infection, an infected wound or meningitis, e.g. neonatal meningitis. In some embodiments, an Enterococcus faecium infection may be treated using an agent or composition of the invention in combination with an antibiotic. In some embodiments, the antibiotic is a DNA gyrase inhibitor, such as an aminocoumarin (e.g. novobiocin) or a quinolone (e.g. nalidixic acid or ciprofloxacin). In some embodiments, the antibiotic is 2,4-Diamin, S. methizol, S. methoxa, S. dimetho, Sulfaceta, Trimethoprim, Flumeq, Levoflox, Pruliflox, Metronid or Nitrofur.

A bacterial infection to be treated or prevented by the agent or composition of the invention may be in any tissue or organ of the subject to be treated, such as the lungs (including the respiratory tract), stomach, gastrointestinal tract (GIT), blood, skin (including wounds, such as surgical wounds), bladder (including the urinary tract), kidney, ear, eye, meninges etc. Hence, the bacterial infection may be a respiratory infection, stomach infection, GIT infection, blood infection, skin infection, bladder infection, kidney infection, ear infection, eye infection, meningial infection etc. A skin infection may include an infection of a mucosal membrane, such as the oral cavity, oesophagus or eye, e.g. cornea.

Thus, in some embodiments of the invention the infectious disease or a disease or condition exacerbated or caused by a bacterial infection may include any one of bacterial pneumonia, cystic fibrosis, gastric ulcers, bacterial meningitis, Legionellosis (Legionnaires' disease), Legionellosis (Pontiac fever), Pertussis (Whooping cough), Salmonellosis, Tuberculosis, sepsis etc.

In some aspects of the invention the fungus may be a mold or yeast, preferably a yeast. The fungus may be selected from any one or more of a Dermatophyte, Aspergillus sp. (such as Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus nigricans or flavescens), Zygomycota sp., Fusarium sp., Trichophyton sp., Basidiobolus ranarum, Piedraia sp. (such as Piedraia hortae), Blastomyces dermatitidis, Candida sp. (such as Candida albicans), Chrysosporium, Coccidioides sp. (such as Coccidioides immitis and Coccidioides posadasii), Conidiobolus sp. (such as Conidiobolus coronatus and Conidiobolus incongruus), Cryptococcus sp. (such as Cryptococcus gattii and Cryptococcus neoformans), Histoplasma sp. (such as Histoplasma farciminosum and Histoplasma capsulatum), Exserohilum rostratum, Cladosporium sp., Saccharomyces sp., Lacazia loboi, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Penicillium marneffei, Pneumocystis jirovecii, Sporothrix schenckii, Diheterospora zeaspora, Absidia corymbifera, Apophysomyces elegans, Mucor indicus, Rhizomucor pusillus, Rhizopus oryzae, Cunninghamella bertholletiae, Cokeromyces recurvatus, Saksenaea vasiformis, Syncephalastrum racemosum, Conidiobolus sp. (such as Conidiobolus coronatus and Conidiobolus incongruus).

By way of a representative example, fungi that cause infections or infectious diseases that may be treated or prevented by the agents and compositions described herein include fungi from the genera Candida, Aspergillus, Pneumocystis, Penicillium and Fusarium. Representative fungal species include, but are not limited to, Candida albicans, Candida dubliniensis, Cryptococcus neoformans, Histoplama capsulatum, Aspergillus fumigatus, Coccidiodes immitis, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Blastomyces dermitidis, Pneomocystis camii, Penicillium mameffi and Alternaria alternate. etc.

A variety of environmental and physiological conditions can contribute to the development of fungal diseases and infections. Fungal infections (mycoses) commonly start in the lungs or on the skin, e.g. a fungal infection (a mycosis) may result from the inhalation of fungal spores or localized colonization of the skin may initiate persistent infections. Thus, a fungal infection (mycosis) to be treated or prevented by the agent or composition of the invention may be in any tissue or organ of the subject to be treated, such as the lungs (including the respiratory tract), skin (including wounds), mouth, ear, eye etc. Hence, the fungal infection may be a respiratory infection, skin infection, ear infection, eye infection etc. Thus, in some embodiments of the invention the infectious disease or a disease or condition exacerbated or caused by a fungal infection may include any one of Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, Aspergilloma, Aspergillosis, Athlete's foot, Basidiobolomycosis, Black piedra, Blastomycosis, Candidiasis, Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis, Coccidioidomycosis, Conidiobolomycosis, Cryptococcosis, Dermatophytosis, Endothrix, Epizootic lymphangitis, Esophageal candidiasis, Exothrix, Fungal meningitis, Fungemia, Histoplasmosis, Lobomycosis, Myringomycosis, Oral candidiasis, Paracoccidioidomycosis, Penicilliosis, Piedra, Pneumocystis pneumonia, Sporotrichosis, Tinea such as Tinea barbae, Tinea capitis, Tinea corporis, Tinea cruris, Tinea faciei, Tinea incognito, Tinea nigra, Tinea versicolor, Zeaspora, Zygomycosis, etc.

As noted above, in some embodiments the agent or composition as defined herein is used in combination with one or more additional active agents, e.g. a cytotoxic or cytostatic compound, in order to enhance or complement the effect of agent or composition defined herein. In some embodiments, the additional active agent may be used to treat symptoms of the microbial infection or infectious disease, e.g. secondary symptoms, such agents may be, e.g. an anti-inflammatory compound, steroid (e.g. a corticosteroid) etc. and will be dependent on the nature of the disease, including the severity of the symptoms etc. However, in some embodiments, the agent as defined herein may be used alone, i.e. as the only active agent in a composition and/or medicament.

In some embodiments, e.g. where the agent or composition is used to treat or prevent a fungal infection or infectious disease, the additional active agent is a cytostatic or cytotoxic agent. In particularly preferred embodiments, the cytotoxic or cytostatic agent is an intracelluarly-active agent, i.e. it targets an intracellular process. In other words, in some embodiments, the cytotoxic or cytostatic agent does not act at or on the cell wall or cell membrane, i.e. it does not exert its cytotoxic or cytostatic effect by affecting the cell wall or cell membrane, e.g. by inhibiting cell wall synthesis or by permabilizing the cell.

By “cytostatic agent” is meant an agent which is capable of inhibiting or suppressing the growth and/or multiplication (replication/proliferation) of microbial cells, e.g. an anti-microbial agent, such as an antibiotic or antifungal (an antimycotic) agent.

Included as cytostatic agents are cytotoxic agents and any agent which may be indicated for an antimicrobial application. Thus, included are agents used in antimicrobial treatment protocols. However, cytostatic agents that are not typically used for suppressing or inhibiting microbial growth may find utility in combination with the agents defined herein, e.g. agents that generally have an effect on cell growth, such as chemotherapeutic agents, particularly DNA damaging agents.

In some embodiments, the cytostatic or cytotoxic agent is an antibiotic and/or antifungal agent.

Suitable antibiotic agents include but are not limited to any one or more of Aminocoumarins (such as Novobiocin, Albamycin, Coumermycin and Clorobiocin), Aminoglycosides (such as Amikacin, Apramycin, Gentamicin, Kanamycin, Neomycin, Netilmicin, Tobramycin, Paromomycin and Spectinomycin), Ansamycins (such as Geldanamycin, Herbimycin, Rifaximin and Streptomycin), Carbapenems (such as Ertapenem, Doripenem, Cilastatin (‘Imipenem’) and Meropenem), Cephalosporins (such as Cefadroxil, Cefazolin, Cefalothin (‘Cefalotin’), Cefalexin, Cefaclor, Cefamandole, Cefoxitin, Cefprozil, Cefuroxime, Cefixime, Cefdinir, Cefoperazone, Cefotaxime, Cefpodoxime, Ceftazidime, Ceftibuten, Ceftizoxime, Ceftriaxone, Cefepime, Ceftaroline fosamil and Ceftobiprole) Glycopeptides (such as Teicoplanin, Vancomycin and Telavancin), Lincosamides (such as Clindamycin and Lincomycin), Lipopeptides (such as Daptomycin), Macrolides (such as Azithromycin, Clarithromycin, Dirithromycin, Erythromycin, Roxithromycin, Troleandomycin, Telithromycin and Spiramycin), Monobactams (such as Aztreonam), Nitrofurans (such as Furazolidone and Nitrofurantoin), Oxazolidonones (such as Linezolid, Posizolid, Radezolid and Torezolid), Penicillins (such as Amoxicillin, Ampicillin, Azlocillin, Carbenicillin, Cloxacillin, Dicloxacillin, Flucloxacillin, Mezlocillin, Methicillin, Nafcillin, Oxacillin, Penicillin G, Penicillin V, Piperacillin, Temocillin and Ticarcillin), Penicillin combinations (such as Amoxicillin/clavulanate, Ampicillin/sulbactam, Piperacillin/tazobactam and Ticarcillin/clavulanate), Polyethers (such as Monensin), Polypeptides (such as Bacitracin, Colistin and Polymyxin B), Quinolones (such as Ciprofloxacin, Enoxacin, Gatifloxacin, Levofloxacin, Lomefloxacin, Moxifloxacin, Nalidixic acid, Norfloxacin, Ofloxacin, Trovafloxacin, Grepafloxacin, Sparfloxacin and Temafloxacin); Sulfonamides (such as Mafenide, Sulfacetamide, Sulfadiazine, Silver sulfadiazine, Sulfadimethoxine, Sulfamethizole, Sulfamethoxazole, Sulfanilimide, Sulfasalazine, Sulfisoxazole, Sulfamethoxazole (Co-trimoxazole, TMP-SMX, ‘Trimethoprim’) and Sulfonamidochrysoidine), Tetracyclines (such as Demeclocycline, Doxycycline, Minocycline, Oxytetracycline and Tetracycline) and Others (such as Clofazimine, Dapsone, Capreomycin, Cycloserine, Ethambutol, Ethionamide, Isoniazid, Pyrazinamide, Rifampicin (‘Rifampin’), Rifabutin, Rifapentine, Streptomycin, Arsphenamine, Chloramphenicol, Fosfomycin, Fusidic acid, Metronidazole, Mupirocin, Platensimycin, Quinupristin (Dalfopristin), Thiamphenicol, Tigecycline, Tinidazole and Trimethoprim).

Suitable antifungal compounds (antimycotics) include but are not limited to any one or more of Polyene antifungals (such as Amphotericin B, Candicidin, Filipin, Hamycin, Natamycin, Nystatin and Rimocidin), Imidazoles (such as Bifonazole, Butoconazole, Clotrimazole, Econazole, Fenticonazole, Isoconazole, Ketoconazole, Miconazole, Omoconazole, Oxiconazole, Sertaconazole, Sulconazole and Tioconazole), Triazoles (such as Albaconazole, Fluconazole, Isavuconazole, Itraconazole, Posaconazole, Ravuconazole, Terconazole and Voriconazole), Thiazoles (such as Abafungin), Allylamines (such as Amorolfin, Butenafine, Naftifine and Terbinafine), Echinocandins (such as Anidulafungin, Caspofungin and Micafungin) and Others such as Benzoic acid, Ciclopirox, Flucytosine or 5-fluorocytosine, Griseofulvin, Haloprogin, Polygodial, Tolnaftate, Undecylenic acid and Crystal violet.

Other cytostatic agents that may find utility in the invention may be grouped into different classes according to their mechanism of action and all of these classes are contemplated herein. Thus, the cytostatic agent may be an alkylating agent, a cross-linking agent, an intercalating agent, a nucleotide analogue, an inhibitor of spindle formation, and/or an inhibitor of topoisomerase I and/or II. Other types or classes of agent include anti-metabolites, plant alkaloids and terpenoids, or an anti-tumour antibiotic. Preferably, it is an alkylating agent.

Alkylating agents modify DNA by alkylating nucleosides, which leads to the prevention of correct DNA replication. Nucleotide analogues become incorporated into DNA during replication and inhibit DNA synthesis. Inhibitors of spindle formation disturb spindle formation, leading to the arrest of mitosis during metaphase. Intercalating agents intercalate between DNA bases, thereby inhibiting DNA synthesis. Inhibitors of topoisomerase I or II affect the torsion of DNA, thereby interfering with DNA replication.

Suitable cytostatic agents are known in the art, but by way of example MMS (Methyl methanesulphonate), actinomycin D, BCNU (carmustine), carboplatin, CCNU, Campothecin (CPT), cantharidin, Cisplatin, cyclophosphamide, cytarabine, dacarbazine, daunorubicin, docetaxel, Doxorubicin, DTIC, epirubicin, Etoposide, gefinitib, gemcitabine, ifosfamide and/or irinotecan, ionomycin, Melphalan, Methotrexate, Mitomycin C (MMC), mitozantronemercaptopurine, Oxaliplatin, Paclitaxel (taxol), PARP-1 inhibitor, taxotere, temozolomide (TZM), teniposide, topotecane, treosulfane vinorelbine, vincristine, vinblastine, 5-Azacytidine, 5,6-Dihydro-5-azacytidine and 5-fluorouracil are named herein.

The skilled person will be aware of suitable dosage ranges for any given cytostatic agent and, in one embodiment, the cytostatic agent is present in the pharmaceutical composition, or administered to the subject, in its typical dose range. In an advantageous embodiment, a lower dose of the cytostatic agent may be used because the agent defined herein sensitises the microbial cells to the cytostatic agents and so when used in combination with the agent of the invention, a lower dose of the cytostatic agent will have the same or a comparable therapeutic effect as a higher dose of the cytostatic agent on its own.

As discussed above, a suitable dose for the agent or composition as defined herein may be defined as a dose that is sufficient, either alone or in combination with an additional active agent, to inhibit microbial cell growth (e.g. in vivo or in vitro). In some embodiments, a suitable dose may be defined as a dose that is sufficient, either alone or in combination with an additional active agent to kill the majority of the microbial cells causing, or associated with, the infection or infectious disease. In some embodiments, a suitable dose for the agent or composition as defined herein may be defined as a dose that is sufficient to sensitize a microbe to a cytotoxic or cytostatic agent, wherein contacting the microbe with (e.g. treatment with or administration of) an agent and a cytotoxic or cytostatic agent is sufficient to inhibit microbial cell growth (e.g. in vivo or in vitro) and/or sufficient to kill the majority of the microbial cells causing, or associated with, the infection or infectious disease.

In some embodiments, a does may be defined as a dose that does not induce apoptosis in animal cells significantly, i.e. an apoptosis non-inducing dose for animal cells, particularly human cells. Thus, a suitable dose may be defined as a “low dose” or “low amount” of the agent (e.g. oligopeptidic compound), which may be seen as a dose or amount that is not sufficient to cause or induce apoptosis in animal cells either directly or indirectly.

The “majority of cells” may be defined as at least 50% of the microbial cells, e.g. at least 60, 70, 80, 85, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 or 100% of the cells, e.g. cells causing, or associated with, the infection or infectious disease.

Thus a dose that does not induce apoptosis in animal cells significantly may be viewed as a dose that causes or induces apoptosis of less than 20% of the animal cells in the target area, e.g. less than 15, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 or 1% of the animal cells in the target area. The target area may be the area to which the agent or composition is administered, e.g. an organ or a portion thereof.

The effective dose or amount of agent may depend on the characteristics of the peptide, e.g. the strength of the interaction between the PCNA interacting motif and the binding domain of the target protein(s). Furthermore, effective dose or amount of the agent may depend upon the nature of the compound used (i.e. peptide, nucleic acid molecule etc), the mode of administration, the course of treatment, the age and weight of the patient, the medical indication, the body or body area to be treated, or the in vitro use, and may be varied or adjusted according to choice. Generally however, a low dose or amount may result in an active concentration range of about 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 1.25, 1.50, 1.75, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0 to 10 μM, e.g. 0.01 to 10 μM, e.g. 0.05 to 7.5 μM, such as 0.1 to 7.5 μM, e.g. 0.5 to 5 μM. A high dose or amount may result in an active concentration range of about 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40 to 50 μM, e.g. 1.0 to 50 μM, e.g. 2.0 to 40 μM, such as 3.0 to 30 μM, e.g. 5.0 to 25 μM. Said concentrations are determined by reference to the amount of the compound itself and thus appropriate allowances should be made to take into account the purity of the composition.

The subject is an animal (i.e. any human or non-human animal), preferably a mammal, most preferably a human.

As noted above, the agent or composition as defined herein may be provided or administered via a product, device, implant or material to which the agent or composition has been applied, impregnated or chemically bonded. Hence, the invention also provides a product, material, device or implant which is coated, impregnated or chemically bonded with an agent or composition as described herein. The invention also extends to the use of such products, materials, devices or implants in the methods and uses as described herein. In particular, the products, materials, devices or implants may be coated, impregnated or chemically bonded with an agent or composition as described herein to prevent or inhibit the formation of a biofilm.

Thus, the present invention also provides a method of preventing or inhibiting the formation of a bacterial biofilm on a product, material, device or implant, said method comprising:

(i) providing a product, material, device or implant; and

(ii) coating or impregnating said device with an agent or composition as defined herein, or chemically bonding an agent or composition as defined herein to said product, material, device or implant.

To this end, bandages, plasters (e.g. adhesive patches), gauze, surgical tape, cotton swabs or other absorbent materials, e.g. a puff, fleece, or sponge, supportive matrices or wound dressings may be coated, impregnated or chemically bonded with an agent or composition as described herein. For example, many compositions can be applied to the skin using dermal patches that are well described in the art, e.g. US 2008/0038300, US 2009/0043236, WO 2005/067499 and WO 2009/085302, which are incorporated herein by reference. In some embodiments, the material comprising the agent or composition as described herein may be in the form of a device that can be, e.g. worn by the subject to be treated. For instance, the agent or composition as described herein may be applied, impregnated or chemically bonded onto a material or supportive matrix that forms all or part of a diaper, glove, sock etc.

In some embodiments, the product or material is a bandage, plaster (e.g. adhesive patch), gauze, surgical tape, cotton swab, puff, fleece, sponge, supportive matrix, wound dressing, diaper, glove or sock.

In still further embodiments, the device or implant may be a medical or surgical device or implant. For instance, the device or implant may be selected from, but is not limited to, a stent (e.g. coronary stent), ear tube (tympanostomy tube), artificial eye lens (i.e. a pseudophakos or intra-ocular lens), an orthopedic implant (e.g. screw, pin, plate or rod, such as for traumatic fracture repair or spinal fusion), an artificial bone (e.g. a spinal disc, hip, knee etc), a dental implant (e.g. an artificial tooth or part thereof), a cardiac device (e.g. an implantable cardioverter defibrillator, pacemaker etc.), a cosmetic implant (e.g. breast implant), intra-uterine device (IUD), a catheter (e.g. central venous or urinary catheter) or a prosthetic device.

In some embodiments, the product or device may be a contact lens or contact lens storage case.

The agent, composition, product, material, device or implant can be included in a container, pack, or dispenser together with instructions for administration and/or use.

The invention will now be further described with reference to the following non-limiting Examples and Figures in which:

FIG. 1 shows graphs that demonstrate that ATX-101 (SEQ ID NO:1198, which contains the APIM motif, RWLVK (SEQ ID NO: 28)) increases the sensitivity of yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) to a cytostatic agent (cisplatin), wherein: (A) shows the growth of yeast in the presence of various concentrations of cisplatin; (B) shows the growth of yeast in the presence of various concentrations of ATX-101 (APIM); (C) shows the growth of yeast in the presence of various concentrations of ATX-101 in combination with 500 μM cisplatin; and (D) shows the growth of yeast in the presence of various concentrations of ATX-101 in combination with 125 μM cisplatin.

FIG. 2 shows graphs that demonstrate that Hog1 mutant yeast cells have increased sensitivity to ATX-101 in combination with cisplatin relative to wild-type yeast cells, wherein: (A) shows the growth of wild-type yeast in the presence of various concentrations of ATX-101 in combination with 125 μM cisplatin; and (B) shows the growth of Hog1 yeast in the presence of various concentrations of ATX-101 in combination with 125 μM cisplatin.

FIG. 3 shows a laser scanning microscope image of yeast cells incubated with ATX-101 labelled with FAM.

FIG. 4 shows a graph that demonstrates that the growth of gram-negative bacteria, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 15692, Acinetobacter baumanni ATCC 19606, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa TO-5A (clinical isolate) is inhibited by varying concentrations of APIM peptide, ATX-101. Growth of the strains is given relative to growth in cultures without ATX-101.

FIG. 5 shows a graph that demonstrates that the growth of gram-positive bacteria, Enterococcus faecium CCUG 37832, Enterococcus faecium CTC 492 and Micrococcus luteus ATCC 9341, is inhibited by varying concentrations of APIM peptide, ATX-101.

FIG. 6 shows a graph that demonstrates that the growth of the gram-positive bacterium Enterococcus faecium CTC 492 is more sensitive to: (A) Ampicillin; and (B) Novobiocin, (both cytotoxic agents, i.e. antibiotics) when grown in the presence of ATX-101.

FIG. 7 shows a graph that demonstrates that the growth of the gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli NCIMB 12210 is more sensitive to Novobiocin (a cytotoxic agent, i.e. an antibiotic) when grown in the presence of ATX-101.

FIG. 8 shows a graph showing the results of FRET analysis. Normalised FRET (N_(FRET)) measurements are shown between EYFP (yellow fluorescent protein)/ECFP (cyan fluorescent protein) (Lane 1, background due to dimerisation of the tags). EYFP-APIM motif/ECFP-PCNA for various motifs are shown in the other lanes.

FIG. 9 shows a graph that demonstrates that the growth of the MDR bacterium Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA 1040) is more sensitive to macrolide antibiotics, azithromycin and erythromycin, when grown in the presence of ATX-101.

FIG. 10 shows a graph that demonstrates that various APIM peptide variants are capable of reducing the MIC of erythromycin required to inhibit the growth of the MDR bacterium Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA 1040), wherein: ATX-101-STD is SEQ ID NO: 1198; ATX-101-Sv is SEQ ID NO: 1203; ATX-101-Av is SEQ ID NO: 1204; ATX-101-Ls is SEQ ID NO: 1211; ATX-101-P is SEQ ID NO: 1212; and ATX-101-LT is SEQ ID NO: 1208.

FIG. 11 shows graphs that demonstrate that the growth of the MDR bacterium E. faecium CCUG 37832 (TO-3) is more sensitive to various DNA gyrase inhibitors, when grown in the presence of ATX-101.

FIG. 12 shows (A) a graph showing the growth of E. coli in which the overexpression of various proteins or peptides is induced or not induced and demonstrates that the induction of an APIM peptide (SEQ ID NO: 28), alone or as part of a fusion protein with EYFP, inhibits bacterial growth. (B) shows a Western blot showing levels of EYFP-proteins in un-induced (left) versus induced (right) cell cultures.

FIG. 13 shows graphs showing the growth of E. coli in which the overexpression of various APIM peptides is induced (I) or not induced (NI). The APIM sequences are: (A) SEQ ID NO: 28; (B) SEQ ID NOs: 1206, 1207 and 76; (C) SEQ ID NOs: 41, 40 and 52; (D) SEQ ID NO: 58.

FIG. 14 shows graphs showing the growth of E. coli in the presence of 30 μM of various APIM peptides. The same data is presented in (A) and (B), however the control growth curves are not shown in (B). ATX-101 is SEQ ID NO: 1198; ATX-101-P is SEQ ID NO: 1212; FSL is SEQ ID NO: 1206; FLS is SEQ ID NO: 1210; SV is SEQ ID NO: 1203; AV is SEQ ID NO: 1204; LT is SEQ ID NO: 1208; LS is SEQ ID NO: 1211; R11 is SEQ ID NO: 337; Neg contr is no peptide added.

FIG. 15 shows graphs showing the growth of E. coli in the presence of 30 μM of various APIM peptides after the bacteria have been irradiated with UVC. The same data is presented in (A) and (B), however the control growth curves are not shown in (B). ATX-101 is SEQ ID NO: 1198; ATX-101-P is SEQ ID NO: 1212; FSL is SEQ ID NO: 1206; FLS is SEQ ID NO: 1210; SV is SEQ ID NO: 1203; AV is SEQ ID NO: 1204; LT is SEQ ID NO: 1208; LS is SEQ ID NO: 1211; R11 is SEQ ID NO: 337; Neg contr is no peptide added.

FIG. 16 shows graphs showing the growth of E. coli in the presence of ATX-101 (SEQ ID NO: 1198) at various concentrations, without UVC irradiation (left panels) or with UVC irradiation (right panels). R11 is SEQ ID NO: 337 and Neg contr is no peptide added. (A) 15 μM, (B) 7.5 μM and (C) 3.75 μM.

FIG. 17 shows micrographs of biofilm formation of the MDR bacterium Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA 1040) in the presence of 7 μg/ml ATX-101 (SEQ ID NO: 1198) (left panels) or no peptide (right panels) over a period of 36 hours and demonstrates that biofilm formation is inhibited by ATX-101.

FIG. 18 shows micrographs of biofilm formation of the MDR bacterium Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA 1040) in the presence of 0.8 μg/ml ATX-101 (SEQ ID NO: 1198) (left panels) or no peptide (right panels) over a period of 36 hours and demonstrates that biofilm formation is inhibited by ATX-101.

EXAMPLES

The inventors have surprisingly found that an oligopeptidic compound comprising an APIM motif and a cell-penetrating peptide is imported into microbial cells and is capable of inhibiting the growth of said cells. It is thought that oligopeptidic compounds comprising an APIM motif may compete with PCNA-like proteins in microorganisms for proteins that interact with said PCNA-like proteins, thereby inhibiting various cellular processes, e.g. DNA synthesis, signal transduction etc. The effects of oligopeptidic compounds comprising an APIM motif on microbial cell have been established in both bacteria and fungi using an exemplary cell-penetrating APIM-containing peptide ATX-101 (SEQ ID NO:1198, which contains the APIM motif, RWLVK (SEQ ID NO: 28)).

The data presented below suggest that oligopeptidic compounds comprising an APIM motif are useful as antimicrobial agents, e.g. antibiotics and antimycotics, either alone or in combination with other cytostatic or cytotoxic agents. Accordingly, the data supports the use of oligopeptidic compounds comprising an APIM motif in the treatment or prevention of microbial infections or microbial infectious diseases.

Example 1: Determining the Effect of ATX-101 on Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The homozygote diploid mutant library of yeast strains was purchased from EUROSCARF, Institute of Microbiology, University of Frankfurt. Growth studies on wild-type (wt) yeast and the Hog1 mutant were performed. Microplates (Greiner 655163) containing 120 μl 2×MES and 1.5× N-base medium per well were inoculated with 20 μl (per well) of each yeast strain (from frozen stock cultures) and a reference strain (wild type BY4743). The microplate cultures were grown over night (ON) (30° C., 900 rpm at 3 mm amplitude, 85% humidity), ensuring growth well into the stationary growth phase in order to reduce variation caused by differences in growth rates. At day 2, 10 μl was transferred from the ON-cultures to 200 μl 2×MES 1.5× N-base per well in 96-well microplates, mixed (900 rpm at 3 mm amplitude, 30 sec) and grown to OD 0.15-0.2 before addition of different doses of cisplatin and/or ATX-101. The OD (600 nm) in each well was read every 20 minutes using an integrated Beckman Coulter Paradigm microplate reader. The growth of the yeast strains in the microplates was monitored for approximately 25 hours.

FIG. 1 shows that cisplatin at a concentration of 125 μM is not sufficient to retard growth of the yeast cells (FIG. 1A). A cisplatin concentration of 500 μM is required to retard growth and even at 2000 μM, growth is not completely inhibited. Similarly, ATX-101 (labeled as APIM) at a concentration of 10 μM does not retard growth and a concentration of 20 μM or more is necessary to retard growth of the yeast cells (FIG. 1B). However, the combination of cisplatin at 500 μM and ATX-101 at 20 μM is capable of inhibiting growth of the yeast cells after approximately 7 hours (FIG. 10). Thus, ATX-101 (an APIM peptide) and cisplatin (a cytostatic agent) have a synergistic effect on yeast, when combined. In fact, the effect is seen when cisplatin is used at a concentration that, alone, has no effect on yeast growth, 125 μM (FIG. 1D). It is also evident from this experiment that high concentrations of ATX-101 alone will be capable to inhibiting growth of yeast cells.

FIG. 2 shows that Hog1 yeast mutants (FIG. 2B) show increased sensitivity to ATX-101 in combination with cisplatin. A combination of 10 μM ATX-101 and 125 μM cisplatin is sufficient to retard growth and higher concentrations of ATX-101 result in complete inhibition of cell growth. Hog1 is a protein kinase in the a mitogen activated protein (MAP) kinase pathway in yeast, which is required for adaptation to osmotic stress. Thus, these data suggest that ATX-101 may be acting by interfering with intracellular signalling in addition to DNA synthesis and repair mechanisms.

Based on these results, APIM peptides are expected to be useful as antimycotic agents for all fungi.

Example 2: Cellular Import of ATX-101

Yeast cells (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) were grown in LB media. A fluorescently labelled APIM peptide (ATX-101-FAM) was added to the media and incubated for 1-2 minutes before an aliquot of cells was removed and analyzed on a Zeiss LSM 510 Meta laser scanning microscope equipped with a Plan-Apochromate 63×/1.4 oil immersion objective.

FIG. 3 shows that ATX-101 is imported into yeast cells, thereby demonstrating that it must be acting intracellularly, i.e. unlike many antimicrobial compounds ATX-101 is not antimicrobial due to its effects on cell walls or membranes, i.e. it does not function by permeabilizing cells.

Example 3: Determining the Effect of ATX-101 on Bacteria

The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of ATX-101 was determined for various gram negative and gram positive bacteria. The bacteria, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 15692, Acinetobacter baumanni ATCC 19606, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Pseudomonas aeruginosa TO-5A (clinical isolate), Enterococcus faecium CCUG 37832, Enterococcus faecium CTC 492, Micrococcus luteus ATCC 9341 and Escherichia coli NCIMB 12210 were grown in the presence of various concentrations of ATX-101 and/or antibiotic.

Robotic MIC Assay:

ATX-101 was dissolved in Mueller-Hinton broth to 1.25 times of the desired assay concentration. Antibiotics were dissolved in Mueller-Hinton broth and Mueller-Hinton broth with ATX-101 at a concentration of 1.25 times the highest desired assay concentrations. Antibiotics were pharmaceutical grade purchased from Sigma-Aldrich.

Two-fold serial dilutions of antibiotics were made in Mueller-Hinton with different concentrations of ATX-101, and the solutions were placed in four parallel wells in Nunc 384-well micro plates (30 μl per well in Nunc 242757 microplates). A group of 8 wells with no addition of antibiotics for each ATX-101 concentration was included on each micro plate as a growth reference.

At the day of analysis, overnight TSB cultures inoculated from freeze stocks (6 ml in 50 ml tube tilted to 45-degrees angle, 200 rpm, 2.5 cm amplitude, 37° C.) were diluted in TSB until the OD600 was 0.10, and further diluted 1:40 in Mueller-Hinton broth. Each well in the 384-well assay plates was inoculated with 7.5 μl of the diluted culture, giving the same dilution of the culture in the assay cultures. The microplates were placed in plastic bags and incubated without shaking at 37° C. The optical density at 600 nm in the microwells was measured after approximately 19 hours of incubation, and the relative growth yield in each well was calculated based on the growth in the reference groups. The MIC value was set to the highest concentration giving less than 30% growth in all 4 parallel wells within the sample groups. The microplates were further incubated for 6 hours, and optical density in the cultures was measured once more for confirmation of the estimated MIC-values.

FIG. 4 shows that the growth of various gram negative bacteria is inhibited by ATX-101 from about 1 μM. FIG. 5 shows that the growth of various gram positive bacteria is inhibited by ATX-101 from about 1 μM. The MIC for the gram negative bacteria tested to date was determined to be in the range of 5-10 μg/ml. The MIC for gram positive bacteria tested to date was determined to be in the range of 1 μg/ml. These data suggest that, in general, gram positive bacteria are more sensitive to APIM peptides than gram negative bacteria. However, based on these results, APIM peptides are expected to be useful as antibiotic agents for all bacteria.

FIG. 6 shows that Enterococcus faecium CTC 492 shows increased sensitivity to ampicillin and novobiocin in combination with ATX-101. A combination of 6.5 μg/ml or 13 μg/ml ATX-101 is sufficient to inhibit bacterial growth at a concentration of about 0.5 μg/ml ampicillin, whereas a concentration of 1 μg/ml ampicillin without ATX-101 was required to achieve the same level of inhibition. Similarly, 6.5 μg/ml or 13 μg/ml ATX-101 enhances the inhibition of bacterial growth at a concentration of about 0.5-2 μg/ml novobiocin. FIG. 7 shows that that ATX-101 is capable of reducing the MIC for novobiocin by 16-fold. Thus, these data suggest that ATX-101 has an additive or synergistic inhibitory effect on bacterial growth in combination with an antibiotic. FIG. 6 also demonstrates that higher concentrations of ATX-101, e.g. 20 μg/ml, are sufficient to kill bacteria, as no growth was observed at this concentration, with or without ampicillin or novobiocin.

Based on these results, APIM peptides are expected to be useful in combination with other antibiotic agents, i.e. may enable known antibiotics to be used effectively at lower concentrations.

Example 4: Determining the Effect of Other APIM Peptides on Bacteria

The inventors have shown that other APIM peptides, i.e. comprising PCNA binding motifs that are different to the motif in ATX-101, are also effective antibiotics. In this respect, peptides comprising the sequences: MDRWSVKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR (SEQ ID NO: 1203) and MDRWAVKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR (SEQ ID NO: 1204), i.e. wherein X₃ and X₄ are SV and AV, respectively, are particularly effective and show lower MICs than ATX-101. These data indicate that the antimicrobial effect arises from the PCNA interacting motif, because the other domains in these peptides are identical.

Example 5: In Silico Characterisation of APIM Consensus Motif

The inventors have performed sequence analyses to determine how much variation within the APIM motif occurs naturally, i.e. in native sequences across a number of species. As PCNA is highly conserved across eukaryotic organisms, it is expected that sequence variation of the APIM motif in orthologues of polypeptides that are thought to interact with PCNA is representative of the variation that may be used in the oligopeptidic compounds of the invention, i.e. variation of amino acids within the APIM motif at some positions, particularly X₃ and X₄, may be permitted without losing affinity to PCNA.

The inventors used identified 657 human polypeptide sequences that comprise the motif [K/R]-[F/W/Y]-[A/L/V/I]-[A/L/V/I]-[K/R] (SEQ ID NO:19) from a possible 21,673 polypeptide sequences. Of the 657 sequences identified, 291 were excluded because insignificant information about the function of the polypeptides was available. The remaining 366 were considered to be polypeptides that are likely to interact with PCNA and these sequences were used to identify orthologues in: Bos taurus (288 orthologues); Rattus norvegicus (286 orthologues); Mus musculus (312 orthologues); Gallus gallus (236 orthologues); Xenopus tropicalis (200 orthologues); Danio rerio (189 orthologues); Caenrhabditis elegans (102 orthologues); Drosophila melanogaster (136 orthologues); and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (65 orthologues). Alignment of the domains of the orthologues that comprise the APIM motif suggested that the motif may defined as:

[R/K/H]-[W/F/Y]-[L/I/V/A/M/S/T/N/Q/C]-[L/I/V/A/M/G/S/T/N/Q/R/H/K/C]-[K/R/H/P] (SEQ ID NO: 2), wherein specific combinations of amino acids at positions 3 and 4 that were identified in the orthologues include:

LL, LA, LV, AL, VL, VI, LI, IL, VV, VA, IV, II, AV, IA, AI, AM, LM, LS, LT, IS, MV, TV, AA, IM, LN, LQ, VM, TL, SL, IT, VT, LG, MA, ML, NL, QL, QI, TI, SI, AS, VS, SV, CA, IG, LR, VR, TK and IR. Particularly common combinations are LL, LA, LV, AL, VL, VI, LI, IL, VV, VA, IV, II, AV, IA, AI, AM, LM, LS and LT, the most common being LL, LA, LV, AL, VL, VI, LI, IL, VV, VA, IV, II, AV, IA and AI.

Thus, the broadest definition of the APIM motif was derived from this analysis, and all polypeptides comprising an APIM motif according to this definition could reasonably be expected to interact with, i.e. bind to, PCNA.

Example 6: In Vivo Characterisation of APIM Consensus Motif

This work described in this Example investigates interaction between APIM peptides and PCNA.

In living S-phase cells, PCNA tagged with green fluorescent protein (EGFP) forms distinct foci representing sites of replication and thus can be used as a S-phase marker.

PCNA tagged with cyan fluorescent protein (ECFP) was co-expressed with various APIM peptide constructs fused with yellow fluorescent protein (EYFP). To examine the degree of proximity of APIM peptides and PCNA, fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) was measured.

Live HeLa cells were examined 16-24 hours after transient transfection (by Fugene 6 (Roche Inc.) according to the manufacturer's recommendations) of ECFP and EYFP fusion constructs. Fluorescent images were acquired using a Zeiss LSM 510 Meta laser scanning microscope equipped with a Plan-Apochromate 63×/1.4 oil immersion objective. Enhanced cyan fluorescent protein (ECFP) was excited at λ=458 nm and detected at λ=470-500 nm and enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (EYFP) was excited at λ=514 nm and detected at λ=530-600 nm, using consecutive scans. The thickness of the slice was 1 μm.

Fluorescent resonance energy transfer (FRET) occurs if the tags (EYFP and ECFP) are less than 100 Å (10 nm) apart. We detected FRET using the sensitised emission method, measuring acceptor (EYFP) emission upon donor (ECFP) excitation. We had FRET when the intensity of emitted light from EYFP after excitation of the ECFP fluorochrome was stronger than the light emitted by ECFP or EYFP-tagged proteins alone, after excitation with the EYFP and ECFP lasers respectively (bleed through), given by the equation: FRET=I₂−I₁ (I_(D2)/I_(D1))−I₃ (I_(A2)/I_(A3)) is >0. FRET was normalised for expression levels using the equation: N_(FRET)=FRET/(I₁×I₃)^(1/2). N_(FRET) was calculated from mean intensities (I) within a region of interest (ROI) containing more than 25 pixels where all pixels had intensities below 250 and the average intensities were between 100 and 200 for both the donor and the acceptor constructs. Channel 1 (ECFP) and 3 (EYFP) were measured as described above for imaging, and channel 2 (FRET) was excited with λ=458 nm and detected at λ=530-600 nm. I_(D1, D2, D3) and I_(A1, A2, A3) were determined for cells transfected with ECFP and EYFP constructs only, with same settings and same fluorescence intensities as co-transfected cells (I₁ and I₃). ECFP-PCNA and EYFP-PCNA were included as positive controls, and due to dimerisation of co-expressed tags, ECFP and EYFP proteins expressed from empty vectors were included as negative controls in all experiments.

FIG. 8 shows that a significant FRET signal could be detected for all of the variants tested, which verifies that a variety of peptides within the APIM motif definition described herein (and that occur in polypeptides that are expected to interact with PCNA) are capable of interacting with PCNA and would therefore be expected to find utility in the method and uses described herein, i.e. as anti-microbial peptides.

Example 7: Determining the Effect of APIM Peptides on the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration of Various Antibiotics on Bacteria

The APIM peptide ATX-101 was used to determine the effect of APIM peptides on the MIC for various antibiotics on a range of bacteria.

The APIM peptide was dissolved in Mueller-Hinton broth to 1.25 times of the desired assay concentration. Antibiotics were dissolved in Mueller-Hinton broth and Mueller-Hinton broth with APIM at a concentration of 1.25 times the highest desired assay concentrations. Antibiotics were pharmaceutical grade purchased from Sigma-Aldrich.

Two-fold serial dilutions of antibiotics were made in Mueller-Hinton with different concentrations of APIM, and the solutions were placed in four parallel wells in Nunc 384-well micro plates (30 μl per well in Nunc 242757 microplates). A group of 8 wells with no addition of antibiotics for each APIM concentration was included on each micro plate as growth reference.

At the day of analysis, overnight TSB cultures inoculated from freeze stocks (6 ml in 50 ml tube tilted to 45-degrees angle, 200 rpm, 2.5 cm amplitude, 37° C.) were diluted in TSB until the OD₆₀₀ was 0.10, and further diluted 1:40 in Mueller-Hinton broth. Each well in the 384-well assay plates was inoculated with 7.5 μl of the diluted culture. The microplates were placed in plastic bags and incubated without shaking at 37° C. The optical density at 600 nm in the microwells was measured after approximately 19 hours of incubation, and the relative growth yield in each well was calculated based on the growth in the reference groups. The MIC value was set to the highest concentration giving less than 30% growth in all 4 parallel wells within the sample groups. The microplates were further incubated for 6 hours, and optical density in the cultures was measured once more for confirmation of the estimated MIC-values.

Table 3 shows that APIM peptides are capable of reducing the MIC for numerous antibiotics by at least 50% in various bacteria.

TABLE 3 APIM conc. Est MIC Strain Antibiotic μg/ml (μg/ml) E. faecium CTC 492 Ampicillin 0 1 E. faecium CTC 492 Ampicillin 6.5 0.5 E. faecium CTC 492 Ampicillin 13 0.5 E. faecium CTC 492 Apramycin 0 64 E. faecium CTC 492 Apramycin 6.5 64 E. faecium CTC 492 Apramycin 13 32 E. faecium CTC 492 Rifampicin 0 16 E. faecium CTC 492 Rifampicin 6.5 32 E. faecium CTC 492 Rifampicin 13 4 E. faecium CTC 492 Rifampicin 20 8 E. faecium CTC 492 Erythromycin 0 4 E. faecium CTC 492 Erythromycin 6.5 4 E. faecium CTC 492 Erythromycin 13 1 E. faecium CTC 492 Chloramphenicol 0 2 E. faecium CTC 492 Chloramphenicol 6.5 2 E. faecium CTC 492 Chloramphenicol 13 1 E. faecium CTC 492 Imipenem 0 4 E. faecium CTC 492 Imipenem 6.5 2 E. faecium CTC 492 Imipenem 13 2 E. faecium CTC 492 Tobramycin 0 64 E. faecium CTC 492 Tobramycin 6.5 64 E. faecium CTC 492 Tobramycin 13 32 E. faecium CTC 492 Monensin 0 1 E. faecium CTC 492 Monensin 6.5 0.5 E. faecium CTC 492 Monensin 13 0.5 E. coli NCIMB 12210 Chloramphenicol 0 2 E. coli NCIMB 12210 Chloramphenicol 2 2 E. coli NCIMB 12210 Chloramphenicol 4 2 E. coli NCIMB 12210 Chloramphenicol 8 1 E. coli NCIMB 12210 Novobiocin 0 64 E. coli NCIMB 12210 Novobiocin 2 32 E. coli NCIMB 12210 Novobiocin 4 8 E. coli NCIMB 12210 Novobiocin 8 4 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Rifampicin 0 2 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Rifampicin 2 2 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Rifampicin 4 1 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Rifampicin 8 1 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Imipenem 0 0.25 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Imipenem 2 0.125 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Imipenem 4 0.125 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Gentamicin 0 16 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Gentamicin 2 16 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Gentamicin 4 8 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Monensin 0 64 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Monensin 2 64 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Monensin 4 64 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Monensin 8 32 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Vancomycin 0 32 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Vancomycin 2 32 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Vancomycin 4 16 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Novobiocin 0 8 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Novobiocin 2 8 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Novobiocin 4 8 A. baumanii ATCC 19606 Novobiocin 8 2

Example 8: The Effect of APIM Peptides on MDR Bacteria

The efficacy of APIM peptides as antibiotics against MDR bacteria was tested using strains of MRSA and MDR E. faecium.

Table 4 demonstrates that APIM peptides, exemplified using ATX-101, are particularly effective against MRSA, as the MIC of APIM peptide needed to inhibit growth of two strains of MRSA was greatly reduced in comparison to a control strain of S. aureus.

TABLE 4 Starting concentration of Factor of MIC of ATX-101 Strain ATX-101 (μg/ml) inhibition (μg/ml) Staphylococcus 150 1 150 aureus NCTC 6571 Staphylococcus 150 0.25 37.5 aureus MRSA 1040s Staphylococcus 150 0.0625 9.375 aureus MRSA 1096

In view of the anti-bacterial effect of ATX-101 on strains of MRSA, the MIC for a variety of APIM variants was determined using Staphylococcus aureus MRSA 1040s. The results in Table 5 show that all APIM peptides have similar antibacterial activity, i.e. variation of the APIM sequence within the parameters defined herein, particularly at positions 3 and 4, does not reduce activity. A cell penetrating peptide (SEQ ID NO: 337) present in all of the APIM peptides, was used as a negative control. Whilst the CPP alone demonstrates some antibacterial activity, its combination with the APIM sequence greatly improves its activity, thereby indicating that the APIM sequence is responsible for the antibacterial effect.

TABLE 5 MIC Peptide sequence APIM sequence (μg/ml) MDRWSVKWKKKRKIRRR RWSVK  32 RRRRRRRR (SEQ ID NO: 52) (SEQ ID NO: 1203) MDRWAVKWKKKRKIRRR RWAVK  32 RRRRRRRR (SEQ ID NO: 58) (SEQ ID NO: 1204) MDRWLSKWKKKRKIRRR RWLSK  32 RRRRRRRR (SEQ ID NO: 40) (SEQ ID NO: 1211) MDRWLTKWKKKRKIRRR RWLTK  32 RRRRRRRR (SEQ ID NO: 76) (SEQ ID NO: 1208) MDRWLVPWKKKRKIRRR RWLVP  32 RRRRRRRR (SEQ ID NO: 1207) (SEQ ID NO: 1212) MDRWLVKWKKKRKIRRR RWLVK  32 RRRRRRRR (SEQ ID NO: 28) (SEQ ID NO: 1198) RRRRRRRRRRR — 118 (SEQ ID NO: 337)

Next, the effect of APIM peptides on the MIC of antibiotics was determined using Staphylococcus aureus MRSA 1040s. Table 6 and FIG. 9 show that ATX-101 reduces the MIC for erythromycin and azithromycin significantly. Table 7 and FIG. 10 demonstrate that similar effects are observed for other APIM variants.

These data indicate that APIM peptides may be particularly effective in treating MRSA infections, either alone or in combination with antibiotics, particularly macrolide antibiotics.

TABLE 6 MIC (μg/ml) when combined with 10 μg/ml of MIC μg/ml ATX-101 ATX-101 16 — Erythromycin >1034 2 Azithromycin >1034 8

TABLE 7 Concen- MIC of tration Eryth- of APIM romycin APIM peptide (Relative Peptide sequence sequence (μg/ml) values) MDRWLVKWKKKRKIRRR RWLVK 7.5 1000 RRRRRRRR (SEQ ID (SEQ ID NO: 1198) NO: 28) MDRWLVKWKKKRKIRRR RWLVK 15  125 RRRRRRRR (SEQ ID (SEQ ID NO: 1198) NO: 28) MDRWSVKWKKKRKIRRR RWSVK 15  100 RRRRRRRR (SEQ ID (SEQ ID NO: 1203) NO: 52) MDRWAVKWKKKRKIRRR RWAVK 15  200 RRRRRRRR (SEQ ID (SEQ ID NO: 1204) NO: 58) MDRWLSKWKKKRKIRRR RWLSK 15  200 RRRRRRRR (SEQ ID (SEQ ID NO: 1211) NO: 40) MDRWLTKWKKKRKIRRR RWLTK 15  100 RRRRRRRR (SEQ ID (SEQ ID NO: 1208) NO: 76) MDRWLVPWKKKRKIRRR RWLVP 15  100 RRRRRRRR (SEQ ID (SEQ ID NO: 1212) NO: 1207)

Additive effects were also observed when APIM peptides were combined with various antibiotics to treat a MDR strain of E. faecium (E. faecium CCUG 37832 (TO-3)), which is commonly associated with endocarditis, urinary tract infections and infections in wounds.

The MIC for APIM peptide ATX-101 on E. faecium CCUG 37832 (TO-3) was determined to be 7.5 μg/ml. Accordingly, concentrations of 8 μg/ml and 16 μg/ml of ATX-101 were combined with various antibiotics selected from: 2,4-Diamin, S. methizol, S. methoxa, S. dimetho, Sulfaceta, Trimeth, Flumeq, Levoflox, Pruliflox, Metronid and Nitrofur. FIG. 11 shows that the MIC of each antibiotic could be reduced by combining it with an APIM peptide. Thus, these data indicate that APIM peptides may be particularly effective in treating E. faecium infections (particularly MDR E. faecium infections), either alone or in combination with antibiotics, particularly DNA gyrase inhibitors.

Example 9: Overexpression of APIM Peptides in E. coli

In order to verify further that the anti-microbial effect of the APIM peptides arises from the APIM sequence, peptides containing only the APIM sequence (i.e. without a cell-penetrating peptide) were over-expressed in E. coli using the expression vector pET28. The APIM peptide was expressed alone or as part of a fusion protein with EYFP. Expression of EYFP alone was used as a control.

The expression vectors containing the respective peptides were transfected into the bacterial strain E. coli BL21 (ripl). Single colonies, 4-6 of each strain, were inoculated in 150 ml LB media (+Km/Clm) in 96 wells plates, and incubated at 37° C. Overnight cultures were diluted 1:100 and grown for 1 h before induction with 1 mM IPTG (initiating peptide expression). OD was measured every hour.

FIG. 12A shows that expression of the APIM peptide, either alone or as part of a fusion protein with EYFP, inhibits bacterial growth. This result demonstrates that the APIM sequence RWLVK (SEQ ID NO: 28) has antibacterial properties even in the absence of a cell-penetrating peptide.

FIG. 13 shows that APIM variant sequences are similarly effective at inhibiting bacterial growth when overexpressed in E. coli. FIG. 13B indicates that the APIM variants RWLTK (SEQ ID NO: 76), RFSLK (SEQ ID NO: 1206) and RWLVP (SEQ ID NO: 1207) are particularly effective. However, all of the variants tested show a significant inhibitory effect on bacterial growth.

Example 10: Determination of APIM Peptide Interaction with the β-Clamp Protein from E. coli

Microscale thermophoresis (MST) was used to determine the dissociation constant for various APIM containing peptides.

The β-clamp protein from E. coli was labeled with a fluorescent molecule. Concentration of PCNA was kept constant, whereas dilutions of each APIM containing peptide were prepared (1:1). In a mix of protein and peptide, the signal was recorded in all capillaries with varying concentrations of the unlabeled peptide, and any change of thermophoretic properties was observed as a change in fluorescence intensity.

Table 8 shows that various APIM peptides show specific interactions with the β-clamp protein (a low Kd value indicates a strong interaction, whereas a high Kd value indicates a weak interaction). The R11 peptide (SEQ ID NO: 337) was used as a control and no data could be obtained by MST for this peptide, indicating that this peptide does not interact with the β-clamp protein. This data further verifies that the APIM sequence contributes to the antibacterial effects of the APIM peptides.

TABLE 8 APIM Peptide sequence sequence Kd MDRWLVKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR RWLVK 101 (SEQ ID NO: 1198) (SEQ ID NO: 28) MDRWSVKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR RWSVK 408 (SEQ ID NO: 1203) (SEQ ID NO: 52) MDRWAVKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR RWAVK  57 (SEQ ID NO: 1204) (SEQ ID NO: 58) MDRWLSKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR RWLSK 115 (SEQ ID NO: 1211) (SEQ ID NO: 40) MDRWLTKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR RWLTK  22 (SEQ ID NO: 1208) (SEQ ID NO: 76) MDRWLVPWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR RWLVP 366 (SEQ ID NO: 1212) (SEQ ID NO: 1207) MDRFLSKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR RFLSK 511 (SEQ ID NO: 1210) (SEQ ID NO: 41) MDRFSLKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR RFSLK  20 (SEQ ID NO: 1209) (SEQ ID NO: 1206) R11 (SEQ ID NO: 337) — Nd

Example 11: Determination of the Effect of UV Radiation on the Anti-Microbial Properties of APIM Peptides

Pre-cultures of E. coli BL21 (ripl) were grown over-night in LB at 37° C. The cultures were then diluted 1:100 and 150 ml/well was added/well in 96 wells plates. The cultures were further incubated for 1 h and each plate was exposed to UVC, 2 J/cm², with a Stratalinker. The plates were incubated for 30 minutes following UV treatment and various APIM peptides, 15 μM or 30 μM of each peptide, were added to 6 parallel wells. OD₆₆₀ was measured every hour. Values were normalized and average was plotted.

FIGS. 14A and B show the effect of various APIM peptides (30 μM) on bacteria that have not been exposed to UV radiation. The graph in FIG. 14B shows the same growth curves as FIG. 14A without the controls (no peptide was added), which are the two highest grow curves in FIG. 14A. Thus, FIG. 14B shows that there is some re-growth 5 hours after the APIM peptides were added. However, this assay shows that all of the APIM peptides tested have a significant inhibitory effect on bacterial growth.

FIGS. 15A and B are equivalent to FIGS. 14A and B when the bacteria have been exposed to UV radiation. These Figures demonstrate that there is no re-growth when the APIM peptides are combined with UV radiation. Furthermore, no re-growth was observed in samples even when they were incubated over-night (data not shown). This suggests that UV radiation sensitizes the cells to APIM peptides or vice versa. Thus, these data demonstrate that a combination of APIM peptides and UV radiation, particularly UVC radiation, may be useful in treating bacterial infections.

The treatments using APIM peptides at 15 μM (data not shown) showed similar effects to the 30 μM treatment, which is shown in FIGS. 14 and 15.

FIG. 16 shows that treatment with UV radiation is effective even when using lower concentrations of APIM peptides. APIM peptide concentrations of 15 μM (FIG. 16A), 7.5 μM (FIG. 16B) and 3.75 μM (FIG. 16C) were all effective at inhibiting bacterial growth following treatment with UV radiation. Overall, these data show that bacteria are more 2-5 fold more sensitive to APIM peptides after UV-irradiation.

Example 12: Effect of ATX-101 on Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) Biofilm Under Flow

APIM peptides were tested to determine whether they have an effect on biofilm formation.

The IBIDI flow-system coupled with EVOS Auto Imaging system was optimized and used for testing the effect of ATX-101 on MRSA biofilm under flow. MRSA 1040 (u50) was used as model organism; it normally produces a dense biofilm in the growth channel during 36 hours of flow. The effect of 3 different concentrations of ATX-101 was tested (7 μg/ml, 3.5 μg/ml and 0.8 μg/ml). The flow system was programmed with share stress similar to those found in capillary networks (3.49 dyne/cm²), 2% Luria Bertani (LB) was used for dilution and flow medium. Good effect of ATX-101 was observed for all tested concentrations, the highest and lowest concentrations are presented in FIGS. 17 and 18, respectively.

Example 13: Determining the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of Various APIM Peptides on Bacteria

The MICs for various APIM peptides were determined for various bacteria, as described above. The results are shown in Table 9 and show that all of the tested variants have anti-bacterial properties, when used alone, across a variety of bacteria. The results also demonstrate that the APIM peptides are particularly effective against MDR bacteria, e.g. E. faecium TO-3 and MRSA 1040.

TABLE 9 MIC (μM) E.faecium E.faecium MRSA S.aureus Peptide sequence P.aeruginosa E.coli A.baumanii TO-3 TO-12 1040 NCTC6571 MDRWLVKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR 37.9 nd nd 7.5 16.8 7.5 37.9 (SEQ ID NO: 1198) MDRWSVKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR nd 37.9 nd 7.5 37.9 7.5 37.9 (SEQ ID NO: 1203) MDRWAVKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR nd nd nd 7.5 25.3 7.5 37.9 (SEQ ID NO: 1204) MDRWLSKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR nd 37.9 nd 7.5 16.8 7.5 37.9 (SEQ ID NO: 1211) MDRWLTKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR nd nd nd 7.5 25.3 7.5 37.9 (SEQ ID NO: 1208) MDRWLVPWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR nd 37.9 25.3 7.5 25.3 7.5 37.9 (SEQ ID NO: 1212) MDRFLSKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR nd 37.9 nd 7.5 25.3 7.5 37.9 (SEQ ID NO: 1210) MDRFSLKWKKKRKIRRRRRRRRRRR nd nd nd 7.5 25.3 7.5 37.9 (SEQ ID NO: 1209) 

The invention claimed is:
 1. A method of treating a bacterial infection, said method comprising administering an agent, or a composition containing an agent, to a subject in need thereof, wherein said agent comprises: (i) an oligopeptidic compound comprising a PCNA interacting motif and a cell penetrating peptide (CPP), wherein the PCNA interacting motif is X₁X₂X₃X₄X₅ (SEQ ID NO: 1) and wherein: X₁ is a basic amino acid; X₂ is an aromatic amino acid; X₃ is an uncharged amino acid other than an aromatic amino acid, Glycine (G) and Proline (P); X₄ is any amino acid other than Proline (P), an acidic amino acid, a basic amino acid or an aromatic amino acid; and X₅ is a basic amino acid or Proline (P); or (ii) a nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence encoding the oligopeptidic compound of (i), wherein the bacterial infection is caused by a bacterium of a genus selected from the list consisting of Acinetobacter, Enterococcus, Escherichia, Micrococcus, Pseudomonas and Staphylococcus.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein said agent or composition is provided as a combined preparation with one or more additional active agents for separate, simultaneous or sequential use or administration.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein said method further comprises a step of UV radiotherapy, which may be administered simultaneously, sequentially or separately to said agent or composition.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein said bacterial infection comprises a biofilm.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the bacterium is a multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacterium.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the MDR bacterium is a Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacterium or an Enterococcus faecium bacterium.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject has bacterial infectious disease selected from bacterial pneumonia; and sepsis.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject has cystic fibrosis.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the infection is a respiratory infection, stomach infection, gastrointestinal tract (GIT) infection, blood infection, skin infection, bladder infection, kidney infection, ear infection or eye infection.
 10. The method of claim 2, wherein said one or more additional active agents is an antibiotic.
 11. The method of claim 10, wherein said antibiotic agent is selected from one or more of a Macrolide, an Aminocoumarin, an Aminoglycosid, an Ansamycin, a Carbapenem, a Cephalosporin, a Glycopeptide, a Lincosamide, a Lipopeptide, a Monobactam, a Nitrofuran, an Oxazolidonone, a Penicillin, a Penicillin combination, a Polyether antibiotic, a Polypeptide antibiotic, a Quinolone, a sulfonamide, a Tetracycline or another antibiotic.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the PCNA interacting motif comprises the sequence selected from: (SEQ ID NO: 7) [R/K/H]-[W/F/Y]-[L/I/V/A/M/S/T]-[V/L/I/A/M/G/S/ T]-[K/R/H]; (SEQ ID NO: 8) [R/K]-[W/F/Y]-[L/I/V/A/M/S/T]-[V/L/I/A/M/G/S/T]- [K/R]; (SEQ ID NO: 9) [R/K]-[W/F/]-[L/I/V/A/M/S/T]-[V/L/I/A/M/G/S/T]- [K/R]; (SEQ ID NO: 10) [R/K]-[W/F]-[L/I/V/A/M/T]-[V/L/I/A/M/G/S/T]- [K/R]; (SEQ ID NO: 11) [R/K]-[W/F]-[L/I/V/A/M/T]-[V/L/I/A/M/S/T]-[K/R]; (SEQ ID NO: 12) [R/K]-[W/F]-[L/I/V/A/M/S/T]-[V/L/I/A/M/G]-[K/R]; (SEQ ID NO: 13) [R/K]-[W/F]-[L/I/A/V/M/T]-[V/L/I/A/M/S/T]-[K/R]; (SEQ ID NO: 14) [R/K]-[W/F]-[L/I/V/A/M/S/T]-[V/L/A/I/S/T]-[K/R]; (SEQ ID NO: 15) [R/K]-[W/F]-[L/V/I/A/T]-[V/L/A/I/S/T]-[K/R]; (SEQ ID NO: 16) [R]-[W/F/Y]-[L/V/I/A]-[V/L/A/S/T/M]-[K/R]; (SEQ ID NO: 17) [R]-[W/F/Y]-[L/V/I/A/T]-[V/L/A/S/T/M]-[K]; (SEQ ID NO: 18) [R/K]-[F/Y]-[L/V/I/A]-[V/L/A/I/M]-[K/R]; (SEQ ID NO: 19) [R/K]-[W/F/Y]-[L/I/V/A]-[V/L/I/A]-[K/R]; (SEQ ID NO: 20) [R/K]-[W/Y]-[L/V/I/A/S/T]-[V/L/A/S/T/M]-[K/R]; or (SEQ ID NO: 21) [K]-[F/Y/W]-[I/L/V/A/T]-[V/L/A/I/S/T/M]-[K].


13. The method of claim 1, wherein the PCNA interacting motif comprises the sequence selected from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 28, 22 to 27, 29 to 93, 106 to 177, 190 to 297, 1206 or
 1207. 14. The method of claim 1, wherein the CPP is selected from any one of: (i) an antennapedia class peptide; (ii) a protegrin class peptide; (iii) a HIV-TAT class peptide; (iv) an amphipathic class peptide selected from an amphipathic and net positively charged peptide, a proline-rich amphipathic peptide, a peptide based on a Pep-1 peptide (SEQ ID NO: 326) and a peptide based on a MPG peptide (SEQ ID NO: 328); (v) a peptide exhibiting high α-helical content; (vi) a peptide comprising oligomers of basic amino acids; (vii) pVEC; (viii) a calcitonin-derived peptide; and (ix) an amphiphilic cyclic CPP.
 15. The method of claim 1, wherein the CPP is selected from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 337, 302 to 336, 338 to 1162, or 1213 to 1223 or a fragment and/or derivative thereof.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein the agent further comprises a linker domain.
 17. The method of claim 1, wherein the agent comprises the sequence as set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1198, 1182 to 1197, 1199 to 1204 or 1208 to
 1212. 18. The method of claim 1, wherein the agent comprises the sequence as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 1198, 1203, 1204 or 1208 to
 1212. 